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The Encyclopædia of Canadian History will fill a need that has been felt very seriously by students of Canadian history, and indeed by everyone who has occasion to secure or verify information in that wide field. Mr. Burpee’s work will bear the same relation to Canadian history as Low and Pulling’s famous book of reference does to English history, and in some respects it will be found to be even more encyclopædic in scope.

Some fifteen years ago Mr. Burpee prepared a General Index to the Makers of Canada Series, and by incorporating in the Index a considerable amount of new matter, biographical sketches, short articles on various topics relating to Canadian history, and bibliographical references, made it in some sense a dictionary of Canadian history.

Although it had the inevitable limitations of such a composite work, the Index and Dictionary of Canadian History proved extraordinarily popular, newspaper offices, public libraries and other similar institutions reporting that they had worn out half a dozen copies.

The Encyclopædia of Canadian History is a far more comprehensive work than the Index and Dictionary. While it is not in any sense an index to the Makers of Canada Series, it is an indispensable adjunct to the Series, and at the same time stands on its own feet as a scholarly work of reference. Although a pioneer in its own particular field, the Encyclopædia will be found so inclusive and accurate that it will probably remain the standard for many years to come.

The plan is to throw into one alphabetical arrangement every title of any real importance in the entire field of Canadian history, interpreting history in the widest sense. Here will be found all the outstanding figures in Canadian history, from the earliest voyagers to our shores to the leading figures in public life to-day.

Here also are included compact articles on every important event in the history of Canada, its wars and rebellions, its discoveries and explorations, its political, economic, social and intellectual development. The whole is bound together with very complete references and cross-references, so that it is possible both to approach a particular topic from any one of a number of angles, and to follow it through all its ramifications.

For instance, the War of 1812-14 will be found treated under that general title, but the reader will also be referred to separate and more detailed accounts of the individual battles, and he will at the same time find separate biographical sketches of the principal actors in the war, and of some of the principal regiments that took part in it.

Similarly the student will find a general article on Confederation, with separate sketches of the Quebec Conference, the Charlottetown Conference and the Westminster Conference, the Anti-Confederation Movement, the British North America Act, and biographies of each of the Fathers of Confederation. Or if one is interested in the Fur Trade, he will turn up that general title, perhaps get what he needs there; or if not, be referred to more detailed articles on the Hudson’s Bay Company, the North West Company, the X. Y. Company or one of the old trading companies of New France; in these again, he will be led on to articles on the principal men in each company; or to sketches of the famous trading posts of the period of the fur trade.

In the same way, every phase of every subject in the fascinating story of Canada, east and west, French and English, is worked out individually and linked up with other phases of the same subject. And attached to each topic is a carefully selected working bibliography.

A·B·C·D·E·F·G·H·I·J·K·L·M·N·O·P·Q·R·S·T·U·V·W·X·Y·Z

Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell (1821-1893). Educated at McGill University; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1847. A candidate for the Legislative Assembly for Argenteuil, 1857, but defeated by Sydney Bellingham. Bellingham subsequently unseated and Abbott declared elected, 1860. Solicitor-general for Lower Canada in Macdonald-Sicotte ministry, 1862-1863, and for a few days retained same position in Macdonald-Dorion ministry. From 1867 to 1874 and from 1880 to 1887 represented Argenteuil in House of Commons. May, 1887, admitted to Macdonald ministry as minister without portfolio, and at same time appointed to Senate, where he became leader of the Conservative party. On death of Macdonald, became prime minister, June, 1891; held this position until ill health compelled him to resign, November, 1892. A recognized authority on questions of commercial and constitutional law. Framed Insolvent Act of 1864, and Jury Law Consolidation Act of Lower Canada. Bib.: Annual Register, 1893; Terrill, Chronology of Montreal; Thomas, History of Argenteuil and Prescott; Weir, Sixty Years in Canada; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Abbott, Joseph (1789-1863). Born and educated in England. Came to Canada, 1818. Missionary of the Church of England. Wrote The Emigrant, containing information for farmers about Canada.

Abercrombie, James. Entered the army, and obtained a captaincy in the 42nd or 1st Battalion of Royal Highlanders, 1756. Appointed aide-de-camp to Major-General Amherst, 1759, with whom he made the campaigns in Canada of that and the following year. Appointed major of the 78th or 2nd Highland Battalion, 1760, and, in September following, employed by General Amherst in communicating to the Marquis de Vaudreuil the conditions preparatory to the surrender of Montreal, and in obtaining his signature to them. The 78th Regiment having been disbanded in 1763, retired on half-pay. Again entered active service, 1770, as lieutenant-colonel of the 22nd Regiment, then serving in America under the command of Lieutenant-General Gage; killed in the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17th, 1775. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec.

Abercromby, James (1706-1781). Entered the army, and obtained commission as major, 1742; lieutenant-colonel, 1744; colonel, 1746. Sent to America with 50th Regiment, 1756; superseded Shirley and Webb in command of the army; and then resigned command to Lord Loudoun. In 1757 commanded second brigade against Louisbourg. On Loudoun’s recall, became commander-in-chief, 1758. Led expedition against Ticonderoga, with Lord Howe as second in command. On Howe’s death, the campaign became a dismal failure for the British, Abercromby being outgeneralled at every point by Montcalm. Returned to England, and in 1772 deputy governor of Stirling Castle. See also Howe; Rogers; Ticonderoga. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Rogers, Journals during the Late War, ed. by Hough.

Aberdeen. Mountain peak in Canadian Rockies, near Lake Louise, named after Marquess of Aberdeen. Height, 10,250 feet. First climbed in 1894 by W. D. Wilcox, S. E. S. Allen and L. F. Frissell. Bib.: Outram, In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies.

Aberdeen, John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, Marquess of (1847-). A baronet of Nova Scotia. Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Succeeded to peerage, 1870. Appointed viceroy of Ireland, 1886. Governor-general of Canada, 1893. Again viceroy of Ireland, 1905. Outstanding events of his term in Canada were the Colonial Conference at Ottawa, the meeting of the Bering Sea Seal Commission at Victoria, Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, the Second Colonial Conference in London, and the meeting of the British Association at Toronto. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who; We Twa.

Abnaki Indians. A tribe of the Algonquian family, inhabiting a portion of what is now the state of Maine. One of their villages near the mouth of the Penobscot was the mythical Norembega. They were early converts of the French missionaries, and made common cause with the French against the English colonists. A number were brought to Canada in the seventeenth century, and formed a settlement on the St. Francis River, a few miles above its junction with the St. Lawrence. The Indian town was destroyed by Robert Rogers in 1759. The remainder of the tribe now at St. Francis and Bécancour in Quebec, and in New Brunswick. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac and Montcalm and Wolfe; Pilling, Bibliography of Algonquian Languages; Vetromile, The Abnakis and their History.

Abraham, Plains of. See Plains of Abraham.

Academy of Arts. See Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

Acadia. The name of Acadia or “la Cadie” is found as early as November 8th, 1603, in the commission of Henry IV appointing Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts, lieutenant-general in La Cadie, extending from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. The limits were afterwards reduced, and the boundaries of Acadia became a cause of contention between France and England. France claimed that the English possessions were restricted to the peninsula of Nova Scotia, and that the territory now known as New Brunswick had not been ceded to England. The first settlement in Acadia was on the Island of St. Croix in 1604, but the following year it was transferred to Port Royal, and abandoned in 1607. Three years later the Sieur de Poutrincourt established a new settlement at Port Royal, which was destroyed by Argall in 1613. In September, 1621, James I granted the territory of Acadia, under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander. This grant was renewed in July, 1625, by Charles I. A small Scottish settlement was established at Port Royal by the grantee. Acadia was restored to France by the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1632, and during the same year new settlers were brought from France. Acadia was finally ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Lescarbot, New France; Denys, Acadia; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Rameau de Saint-Père, Une Colonie Féodale; Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis; Moreau, Histoire de l’Acadie; Hannay, History of Acadia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia.

Acadia College. Situated at Wolfville, Nova Scotia. Founded by the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society, 1838. Application made to the Nova Scotia Assembly for incorporation as “The Trustees, Governors and Fellows of the Queen’s College.” The corporation created with university powers, 1840. At the next meeting of the Legislature its name changed to Acadia College. Power of appointing governors transferred from the Education Society to the Baptist Convention of the Maritime Provinces, 1851. Final changes in the Act of Incorporation, 1891. Bib.: Canada: An Ency., vol. 4.

Acadian. Newspaper published at Halifax, devoted largely to literary matters. Purchased and edited by Joseph Howe in 1827. Formerly the Weekly Chronicle, published by William Minns.

Acadians. The first permanent settlers were those who came with De Razilly in 1632, and from these the Acadians of to-day are descended. Other French immigrants were brought by d’Aulnay de Charnisay from 1639 to 1649, and by La Tour and Le Borgne in 1651 and 1658 respectively. There were also small immigrations at divers later dates. The first general nominal census was taken in 1671, and gave a population Of 392 souls. In 1686 there were 885 persons in Acadia. Seven years later the inhabitants numbered 1,018. When Acadia was ceded to Britain in 1713, the Acadian population was 2,500. Although from 1713 to 1745 a number of families had escaped to the new French colonies of Isle Royale and Isle St. Jean (now Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island), still in 1749, when the British settled Halifax, there were about 12,500 Acadians in the province. Another large influx of population to the same colonies, and to the St. John River, took place between 1749 and 1755, yet there remained in the latter year in the peninsula and in the Isthmus of Chignecto some 10,000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 7,000 were deported in 1755. The rest escaped to the woods; some went to Miramichi, and later to Baie de Chaleur; others crossed over to the Isles Royale and St. Jean, and quite a number found their way to the St. John River, and from thence to the province of Quebec. The whole population of Acadians in the peninsula, the Isthmus of Chignecto, the St. John River, Isle Royale, and Isle St. Jean, at the time of the expulsion, is computed at 16,000. Bib.: Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Haliburton, Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia; Hannay, History of Acadia; Raymond, St. John River; Gaudet, Acadian Genealogy (Report on Dominion Archives, 1905, vol. 2).

Acadians, Expulsion of the. Governor Lawrence in 1755, with the advice of his Council and of Admirals Boscawen and Mostyn, but apparently without consulting the home government, decided that the Acadians must be deported from Nova Scotia. The reason for this decision was the obstinate refusal of the Acadians to take the oath of allegiance, and the conviction of the governor that the safety of the colony depended upon their expulsion. In September, 1755, all preparations having been made with the utmost secrecy, Monckton at Beauséjour, Winslow at Grand Pré, Murray at Piziquid, and Handfield at Annapolis, seized the inhabitants and held them prisoners until the arrival of the transport and provision ships. These having been delayed, the final embarkation did not take place until late in December. The Acadians were distributed among the British colonies along the Atlantic seaboard. Some hired vessels in 1763, and sailed to Miquelon, and in 1767 and following years returned gradually to their old Acadian home. Others came directly to Nova Scotia in 1766, there being no longer any reason for their exclusion, while others went north to Quebec or south to Louisiana. The present Acadian population in the three Maritime Provinces is over 150,000, and these are the descendants of the few families who escaped deportation, and of those who returned from exile. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Richard, Acadia; Casgrain, Un Pélérinage au Pays d’Evangeline; Une Seconde Acadie; Les Sulpiciens et les Prêtres des Missions Etrangéres en Acadia; Documents Inédits sur l’Acadie, 1710-1815; Archibald, Expulsion of Acadians (N.S. Hist. Soc. Coll., 1887); Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins; Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis; Doughty, The Acadian Exiles.

Accommodation. First steamboat on the St. Lawrence. Built by John Molson at Montreal. Arrived at Quebec from Montreal, November 5th, 1809, making the run in thirty-six hours. The vessel measured eighty-five feet over all, had sixteen feet beam, and was equipped with an engine of six horse-power. See also Molson; Steamships. Bib.: Semi-Centennial Report of Montreal Board of Trade, 1893.

Adams. United States twelve-gun brig on Lake Erie in War of 1812. Surrendered to the British on capture of Detroit and name changed to Detroit. Recaptured by the Americans at Fort Erie and burnt. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Adams, John. Came to Nova Scotia from Boston. Appointed member of the Council, 1720. After the death of Lawrence Armstrong, administered the government during 1739 and 1740. Returned to Boston, 1740, as blindness prevented him from attending to his duties.

Agniers. See Mohawks.

Agriculture. Made little progress either in volume or methods during the French period. Societies for improving the conditions of agriculture were founded in Nova Scotia, 1789; in Quebec the same year; and in Upper Canada in 1792. Simcoe in Upper Canada and Dorchester in Lower Canada did much to further agricultural interests, but Quebec owes most to J. F. Perrault (q.v.), and Nova Scotia to John Young (q.v.). Elgin took a deep interest in the encouragement of farming; and under the Hincks-Morin government a department of agriculture was established, charged among other things with the founding of model farms and agricultural schools. In the West, agricultural experiments were carried out as early as 1820 in the Red River Colony; also on the Pacific Coast. An agricultural school was founded at Ste. Anne de la Pocatière in 1859; the Guelph Agricultural College was established in 1874; the Nova Scotia School of Agriculture, 1885; and the Macdonald College, at Ste. Anne de Bellevue, opened in the fall of 1907. Agricultural Colleges are also in operation in connection with the provincial universities of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. See also Guelph Agricultural College; Macdonald College; Puget Sound Agricultural Society. Bib.: Canada: An Ency., vol. 5; Skelton, General Economic History of the Dominion, in Canada and its Provinces; Report of Ontario Agricultural Commission, 1881.

Aikins, Sir James Albert Manning (1851-). Born at Grahamsville, Ontario. Son of the following. After taking his M.A. at Toronto University, he studied law and was called to the bar, 1878; Q. C., 1884. President, Canadian Bar Association. Represented Canada at the International Congress on Moral Education at The Hague, 1912. Represented Brandon in the House of Commons, 1911-1915. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1916.

Aikins, James Cox (1823-1896). Educated at Victoria College. Elected for Peel County, 1854, and sat in Assembly until 1861. Elected to Legislative Council, 1862; and at Confederation became a member of the Dominion Senate. Secretary of state in Macdonald administration, 1869-1873, and again in 1878-1880; minister of inland revenue, 1880-1882; lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1882-1888; again called to Senate, 1896. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Ailleboust de Coulonge, Louis d’. Administered settlement of Villemarie during the absence of Maisonneuve. Promoted to governorship of Three Rivers. Became governor of Canada, 1648. Succeeded by Lauzon, 1651. Administered the colony, 1657. Died at Quebec, 1660. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Aillon, Father de la Roche d’. Récollet missionary. Acted as interpreter between Champlain and Kirke. Negotiations carried on in Latin. Returned to France, 1629. Bib.: Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of. Signed between Great Britain and France, April 18th, 1748. Brought the War of the Austrian Succession to a close. The practical effect of the treaty was to renew the status quo. All former treaties were renewed and all conquests restored. So far as British North America was concerned, the most vital article was that which provided for the restoration to France of Cape Breton. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions.

Akamina Pass. Through the Rockies, immediately north of the international boundary. The eastern side of the pass is in Waterton National Park. Height above sea level, 5,835 feet. Name of Indian origin, and applied in 1861 by the International Boundary Commission. Means “high beach land.”

Alabama Claims. A Southern privateer, the Alabama, escaped from a British port and destroyed Northern shipping. United States claimed compensation from England. Claims referred to a joint high commission, with other matters in dispute, 1871. Sir John Macdonald one of British commissioners. Claims submitted to arbitration. Geneva award required England to pay the United States $15,500,000. See also Washington, Treaty of.

Alaska Boundary Question. Arose out of differences of opinion as to the interpretation of the 1825 Convention between Russia and Great Britain, and particularly as to the boundary of the coast-strip. The United States contention was that the boundary should follow a line approximately parallel to the coast and thirty marine miles distant therefrom; the Canadian, that it should follow the summit of the first range, crossing many of the inlets near their mouths. The decision of the Joint Commission of 1903 did not concede the United States claims in full, but gave them an unbroken littoral, substantially what they had contended for. Bib.: Hodgins, British and American Diplomacy Affecting Canada; MacArthur, The Alaska Boundary Award, in the Univ. Mag., December, 1907; Bourinot, Canada under British Rule; Proceedings of the Alaska Boundary Tribunal, Washington, 1904; Davidson, The Alaska Boundary; Ewart, The Kingdom of Canada; White, Boundary Disputes and Treaties (Canada and its Provinces).

Albanel, Charles (1613-1696). Came to America from France, 1649. Jesuit missionary. Made expeditions from Quebec to Hudson Bay by way of the Saguenay in 1671-1672, and again in 1674. Met Radisson at the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post at the mouth of Rupert River. Carried prisoner to England. Returned to Canada, 1675, and sent to western missions. Died at Sault Ste. Marie. Bib.: Jesuit Relations; Laut, Pathfinders of the West; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Albany River. Empties into west side of James Bay after a course of 610 miles. Named after the Duke of York and Albany, later James II. Fort Albany stands at its mouth. Several other posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company are on its upper waters. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Alberta. Created a province of the Dominion on September 1st, 1905. Includes the former district of Alberta, with the west half of Athabaska, and a strip of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. Area, 255,285 square miles; population (census, 1921), 588,454. The former district or territory of Alberta was named in honour of the Princess Louise. Seat of government, Edmonton. See also North-West Territories.

Alberta, University of. Created by Act of the Legislature of Alberta passed at the first session after provincial autonomy had been granted. First president appointed, 1908. Seat of university at Strathcona, on the Saskatchewan River, now part of the city of Edmonton.

Alexander, Sir William. See Stirling, Earl of.

Algie, Wallace Lloyd. Lieutenant in the 20th Battalion, C. E. F. Won the Victoria Cross by conspicuous bravery and self-sacrifice on the eleventh of October, 1918, near Cambrai, when with attacking troops which came under heavy enfilade machine-gun fire from a neighbouring village. His valour and personal initiative in the face of intense fire saved many lives and enabled the position, which he had won by capturing machine-guns and turning them on the enemy, to be held. Having gone back for reinforcements, he was killed in leading them forward.

Algonquian Indians. The name is now applied to what was the most widely distributed linguistic stock of North America. Their territory reached from Newfoundland to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill river to Pamlico Sound. They embraced such widely-scattered tribes as the Blackfoot, Chippawa, Cree, Montagnais, Micmac, and Malecite. In the days of French Canada, the name was given to a comparatively unimportant tribe, whose home was on the banks of the Ottawa. Bib.: Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac; Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends; Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Aliens. Acts have been passed at different times in Canada, designed to protect the country against sedition or anti-British sentiment. Dorchester had an Act passed by the Assembly in 1794. Another was adopted in Upper Canada in 1804. Imperial statutes were passed in 1790 and 1826. Bib.: Bradley, Dorchester; Lindsey, Mackenzie.

Allan, George William (1822-1901). Born in York, Upper Canada. Educated at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar, 1846. Served with the volunteers during the Rebellion of 1837. Mayor of Toronto, 1855; elected member of the Legislative Council, 1858; appointed to the Senate, 1867; Speaker of the Senate, 1888-1891. From 1877 until his death, chancellor of Trinity University. He was a generous patron of Art, and in particular made possible Paul Kane’s series of Indian pictures. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Allan, Sir Hugh (1810-1882). Founder of the Allan line of steamships. Came to Canada from Scotland, 1826, and in 1831 entered the shipbuilding firm of James Millar & Co., Montreal, of which he became a partner in 1835. In 1853 his firm began building iron screw steamships, and their first vessel, the Canadian, made its first voyage in 1855. The following year, with a fleet of four vessels, a regular service was opened between Canada and England, with fortnightly sailings. In 1859 the fleet was increased to eight steamers, and a weekly service opened. From these small beginnings, the Allan Line has risen to a foremost place in transatlantic transportation. Sir Hugh Allan was president of the first company which undertook to build the Canadian Pacific Railway, and his corrupt bargain with the government of the day led to the Pacific Scandal and the temporary downfall of Sir John Macdonald. See also Transportation; Canadian Pacific Railway; Molson; Cunard; Royal William. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Canada: An Ency., vol. 3; Semi-Centennial Report of Montreal Board of Trade, 1893.

Allcock, Henry. Studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, and called to the bar, 1791. In November, 1798, appointed judge of Court of King’s Bench for Upper Canada. Elected to Legislative Assembly for constituency of Durham, Simcoe, and E. York, 1800, but unseated by the Assembly, June, 1801. Under the direction of Lieutenant-Governor Hunter, engaged in the preparation of a bill to establish a Court of Equity in the province, and was to have been the first chancellor of the Court. The Court of Equity, however, was not at this time established, and on the removal of Chief-Justice Elmsley to Lower Canada, October, 1802, Allcock was appointed chief-justice of Upper Canada, and a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. On the death of Elmsley, promoted to chief-justice of Lower Canada, July 1st, 1805. In August, 1806, took his seat as a member of the Executive Council, and in January, 1807, appointed a member and chairman of the Legislative Council. Died at Quebec, February 22nd, 1808. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges; Cartwright, Life and Letters of Richard Cartwright.

Allen, Ethan (1737-1789). A resourceful but not over scrupulous Vermonter, leader of a guerilla corps, the Green Mountain Boys. Captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point, May, 1775, and seized St. Johns. In September he made a demonstration against Montreal, was captured and sent to England in irons. After the peace he was released and returned to Vermont, where for several years he and his brothers were engaged in a supposed attempt to bring Vermont back to British allegiance as a separate colony, the refusal of Congress to give Vermont the status of a state having embittered the Vermonters. See also Montgomery; Arnold; American Invasion. Bib.: Allen’s Captivity: Being a Narrative Containing His Voyages, Travels, etc.; Henry Hall, Ethan Allen; Jared Sparks, American Biography, ser. 1, vol. I; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Bradley, The Making of Canada; McIlraith, Haldimand; Bradley, Dorchester.

Allen, Ira (1751-1814). Brother of Ethan, and associated with him in most of his enterprises. Bib.: See previous title.

Allen, Isaac (1741-1806). United Empire Loyalist. Served as lieutenant-colonel of New Jersey Volunteers. Emigrated to St. John, N.B., after the Revolution, and was a grantee of that town. Became a member of the Executive Council, and a judge of the Supreme Court. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Allen, Sir John Campbell (1817-1898). Born in county of York, New Brunswick. Studied law in Fredericton, and called to the bar in 1840. In 1842 appointed one of the commissioners to settle land claims under the Treaty of Washington. Elected to the Assembly for York, 1857. Solicitor-general same year. Speaker of New Brunswick Assembly, 1862-1865. Attorney-general, 1865. Sent as a delegate to England to represent views of New Brunswick in opposition to confederation. In 1865 appointed puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick; in 1875 chief-justice. In 1866 he had been made vice-president of the Court of Governor and Council for determining suits relating to marriage and divorce. In 1878 one of the arbitrators for settling the north-west boundary of Ontario. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Allen, William. United Empire Loyalist. Son of Chief-Justice Allen of Pennsylvania. Served under Howe in 1776, and in 1778 raised the Pennsylvania Loyalists, which he commanded. He was a grantee of St. John, N.B., in 1783, and his American estate was confiscated. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Allouez, Father Claude (1622-1689). Came to Quebec, 1657. Left for the West, 1665. Reached Lake Superior in September, which he named Lac Tracy, and founded a mission at Chequamegon Bay; went to Green Bay, Lake Michigan, 1669, and established a mission on Fox River. The remainder of his life was spent in the Illinois country. He met La Salle there in 1679. Bib.: Shea, Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley; Griffin, Discovery of the Mississippi; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Allsopp, George. Settled in Quebec, 1761, and became prominent in maintaining the rights of the civil authority as opposed to the military. January, 1766, appointed deputy secretary, clerk of the Council, and registrar of enrolments, but because of his opposition to the government, Murray refused to admit him to office. In April, 1768, Carleton confirmed him in these appointments, which he retained until superseded by George Pownall in 1775. From 1771 to 1776 deputy commissary-general. One of the original members of the Legislative Council under the Quebec Act. In 1780, when the Legislative Council presented an address to Haldimand opposing the passing of an ordinance amending the judicial system of the province in accordance with royal instructions to the governor, voted against the address and caused a strongly worded protest to be entered in the minutes of the Council. This action resented by members of the Council, and ultimately led to his dismissal by Haldimand, February, 1783. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Alwington. Name of governor-general’s residence at Kingston.

American Invasion (1775-1776). Grew out of the belief entertained by the rebellious colonists that the French of Canada could readily be won to their side. As a matter of fact the latter, while for the most part showing no enthusiasm to join Carleton’s forces, were still less inclined to coöperate with the invading army under Montgomery and Arnold, or to support the movement for union with the New Englanders. On the other hand, the Americans had a number of English-speaking sympathizers in Montreal—men who had come there from the colonies to the south. This, and its geographical position, made the capture of Montreal an easy matter; but Quebec was a different problem. Here Carleton gathered a small but efficient force of regulars and militia, and successfully held the town against the invading enemy. Montgomery was killed in the assault, December 31st, 1775, and in the spring of 1776 the siege was raised. The invading army hastily retreated to Montreal, and finally was driven out of the country. See also Montgomery; Arnold; Dorchester; Ethan Allen. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Stone, Invasion of Canada; Codman, Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec; Lucas, History of Canada; Coffin, The Province of Quebec and the Early American Revolution; Bradley, The Making of Canada.

Amherst, Jeffery, Baron (1717-1797). Born in Kent, England. Entered the army as a boy, served as aide-de-camp to the Duke of Cumberland in his German campaigns. In 1756 colonel of the 15th Infantry. In two years promoted to major-general. Sent to America, 1758, and in coöperation with Admiral Boscawen, captured Louisbourg that year. Made colonel Royal American Regiment, and succeeded Abercromby when the latter recalled. Took Ticonderoga and Crown Point in 1759, but, instead of advancing into Canada to make a diversion for Wolfe, he set his men to work building a new fort at Crown Point. The following year, Wolfe having in the meantime captured Quebec, Amherst brought all his available forces to the final conquest of Canada. Murray was to advance against Montreal from Quebec, Haviland by way of Lake Champlain, while he himself led the main army down the St. Lawrence from Lake Ontario. The three movements were successfully carried out, and, September 8th, Vaudreuil signed the capitulation of Montreal and all Canada. Appointed commander-in-chief and governor-general in America, 1761. Raised to peerage, 1776, as Baron Amherst of Holmesdale. Rose to be commander-in-chief of the army in England, and field-marshal. See also Louisbourg; Ticonderoga; Crown Point. Bib.: Expedition of British and Provincial Army against Ticonderoga and Crown Point; Samuel Waldo, Reduction of Louisbourg (Dominion Archives, 1886); Johnstone, Journal of Louisbourg, 1750-1758 (Coll. de doc. rel. à la Nouvelle France, vol. 3); Dict. of Eng. Hist.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Bradley, The Fight with France; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Amherstburg. A town on the Canadian side of the Detroit River. Founded as a fort in 1796. In 1812 the village contained a court-house, and over a hundred houses. It was the only British naval station on Lake Erie. The fort, named Malden, was of little defensive value. An important military position in the war, garrisoned by about seven hundred militia. There is a description of it in Richardson’s War of 1812. Incorporated as a village in 1851, and as a town in 1878. Bib.: James, Early History of the Town of Amherstburg.

Amiens, Battle of. Opened August 8th, 1918. The Canadian line was from Thennas to the Amiens-Chaulnes railway line. Five divisions engaged. In fourteen days heavy fighting advanced at the farthest point over fourteen miles, capturing sixty-seven square miles of German defences. The Canadians fought fifteen German divisions and thoroughly defeated ten. Captured over 9,000 prisoners, 190 guns and thousands of machine-guns and trench-mortars. This decisive victory proved to be the turning point in the war and led the way to the final defeat of the German armies. Bib.: Hill, The Battle of Amiens in Canada in the Great World War, Vol. V.

Amiens, Treaty of. Signed between Great Britain and France, March 25th, 1802. Brought to an end the war that had lasted since 1793. Among other provisions, the Newfoundland fisheries were restored to the same position held before the war. Napoleon’s object in signing the treaty was to be free to recover Louisiana and St. Domingo. Had he succeeded in the former he would probably have made Louisiana the base of an attack on Canada. Finding he had to reckon with American opposition, he decided to sell Louisiana to the United States. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions; Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens; Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812.

Amnesty Acts, 1838 and 1849. The former was adopted by the Assembly of Upper Canada to enable the government to extend a conditional pardon in certain cases to those engaged in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. The latter was proposed by Elgin, on behalf of the Imperial government, as a measure of pardon for those implicated in the same Rebellion, and passed by the Legislature of Canada. Led to riots in Montreal and the burning of the Parliament building. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Lindsey, Mackenzie.

Anderson, A. Caulfield. An officer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, employed for many years in the New Caledonia district, under Dr. McLoughlin. He had charge of Fort Alexandria, on the Fraser river, and explored a road from Kamloops to the lower Fraser. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Anderson, Anthony. One of the officers assigned by William Lyon Mackenzie to lead the rebels in the projected attack on Toronto in 1837. Shot and killed by John Powell, whom he was taking prisoner to Montgomery’s Tavern.

Anderson, David (1814-1885). Born in London, England. Educated at Edinburgh Academy and at Exeter College, Oxford. Vice-principal of St. Bees College, Cumberland, 1841-1847, and incumbent of All Saints’, Derby, 1848-1849. Came to the Red River Settlement as bishop of Rupert’s Land, 1849. Remained until 1864, when he returned to England. Subsequently vicar of Clifton and chancellor of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Bib.: Works: Notes on the Flood; Net in the Bay. For biog. see, Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland; Machray, Life of Archbishop Machray.

Anderson, James. Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company, 1855. That year, under instructions from the Company, he made an expedition down Great Fish River, or Back River, to the Arctic Coast. He had been engaged previously in the Company’s service on the Pacific coast. Left a journal of his Arctic expedition; also one on the North-West coast. Bib.: Extracts from James Anderson’s Arctic Journals in Royal Geographical Journal, 1857. See also Bancroft, North-West Coast.

Anderson, Samuel (1735-1836). United Empire Loyalist. Born in New York. Emigrated to Canada at the beginning of the Revolution. Settled near Cornwall, Upper Canada, in 1783, after having served in the army under Sir John Johnson. Became judge of a district court, and afterwards of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Upper Canada. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

André, Louis. Jesuit missionary. Came to Canada in 1669, and from that time until 1684 laboured among the Ottawa Indians and in what is now Wisconsin. He was at Green Bay, 1671-1681. At a later period he was a missionary among the tribes on the lower St. Lawrence. Died at Quebec in 1715. Bib.: Jones, Louis André, in U.S. Cath. Hist. Mag., 1889.

Aneda. An evergreen, used by Jacques Cartier and his men as a remedy against scurvy. Parkman suggests that it was a spruce, or, more probably, an arbor-vitae. Douglas believes it to have been balsam. Cartier spells the name ameda, and Lescarbot, annedda.

Angers, Sir Auguste Rèal (1838-1919). Born in Quebec. Studied law, and called to the bar; made Q.C. 1880, and the same year appointed a puisne judge of the Superior Court of Quebec. Member Legislative Assembly of Quebec 1874-1879. Solicitor-general Quebec, 1874-1876; attorney-general, 1876-1878. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1887; resigned and called to the Senate, 1892. Minister of agriculture, 1892-1895; president of the Council, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Chapais, Angers (Men of the Day).

Anglican Church. See Church of England.

Anglin, Francis Alexander (1865-). Son of following. Called to the bar, 1888; K. C., 1902. Senior judge Ontario High Court, 1904; puisne judge Supreme Court of Canada, 1909; chief-justice, 1924.

Anglin, Timothy Warren (1822-1886). Born in Ireland. Came to St. John, New Brunswick, 1849. Established Weekly Freeman that year. Elected to New Brunswick Legislature for St. John, 1860, and became a member of the Smith administration. Defeated for St. John County in 1866. Opposed Confederation. Elected to the House of Commons, 1867, for Gloucester. Elected Speaker, 1874, and again in 1878. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

Angus, Richard Bladworth (1831-1922). Born at Bathgate, near Edinburgh. Came to Canada, 1857, and joined the staff of the Bank of Montreal. Rose steadily in the service of the bank, and in 1869 became general manager. In 1879, associated with George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen), Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona) and James J. Hill, in securing possession of the St. Paul and Pacific Railway, which later became the Great Northern, and laid the foundation of all their fortunes. President of the Bank of Montreal, 1910; and director of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who; Skelton, The Railway Builders.

Anian, Strait of. Supposed to lead through continent of North America. Dr. Ruge says that the name arose through a misunderstanding of Marco Polo’s book (bk. 3, ch. 5). His Ania “is no doubt the present Anam, but the Dutch cartographers thought that this land was in north-east Asia, and called the strait that was said to separate the continents the Strait of Anian.” The name appears for the first time on Gerh. Mercator’s famous maritime chart of 1569. It was sought by many early navigators as a way through the continent; and has been confused with Carver’s River of Oregon. Bib.: Soph Ruge, Fretum Aniam; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Annand, William (1808-1892). Born in Halifax County. Entered the Nova Scotia Assembly as one of the members for Halifax, 1836; advocated non-sectarian college for Nova Scotia; financial secretary in Howe’s ministry, 1860-1863. An active opponent of Confederation, and an Anti-Confederate delegate to London in 1866. Formed the first Anti-Confederate or Repeal government in Nova Scotia, 1867; retired in 1874 to accept the position of immigration agent at London, where he died. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Annapolis Royal. When Nicholson, with his fleet and New England troops, captured Port Royal in 1710, he changed the name to Annapolis Royal, in honour of Queen Anne. It was besieged the following year by the Acadians with their Micmac and Penobscot allies, but the New England garrison held the fort. Under treaty of Utrecht, 1713, ceded to England by France. In 1744 Paul Mascarene successfully defended the place against Du Vivier. Fort Anne created a National Park and maintained by Dominion government. In 1921 tablets were unveiled to commemorate the 300th anniversary of charter to Nova Scotia; 200th anniversary of the establishment of first Court of English Common Law; and 100th anniversary of arrival of Haliburton at Annapolis. See also Port Royal. Bib.: Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis; Nicholson, Journal of the Capture of Annapolis (N.S. Hist. Soc, vol. I).

Annexation to the United States. A fitful movement, never reaching serious proportions, and generally the result of temporary or local dissatisfaction with political conditions, or of commercial depression. Goldwin Smith was for many years its prophet, and Edward Farrer its publicity agent. Despite their eloquence they made few converts to annexation. It had been the aim of some at least of the leaders of the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in both provinces. It had been threatened on the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846; and again in 1849 when the adoption of the Rebellion Losses Bill led to the famous Annexation Manifesto. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Weir, Sixty Years in Canada; Kirby, Counter-Manifesto to the Annexationists of Montreal; Denison, The Struggle for Imperial Unity; Allin and Jones, Annexation, Preferential Trade and Reciprocity; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; “Proposals of Annexation” in Moore’s International Law Digest, vol. 1, 580.

Anti-Confederation Movement. The League of the Maritime Provinces was organized at Halifax in 1866. Joseph Howe was the moving spirit. Despite its name, the membership was confined to Nova Scotia and largely to Halifax. The League adopted a constitution, and sent Howe, Hugh McDonald and William Annand to oppose Confederation in England. The fight was mainly between these three and Tupper and Jonathan McCully. Failing to prevent passage of the British North America Act, Howe returned to Nova Scotia, and in the provincial elections he and the Anti-Confederates swept the province. In the elections for the new Dominion Parliament, eighteen out of nineteen Nova Scotian members were Anti-Confederate. Tupper stood alone for the new Dominion. Howe and his colleagues then started an agitation to withdraw Nova Scotia from Confederation, and again laid siege to the Imperial authorities, but once more without success. See also Howe, Joseph; Annand, William; Millar, William; Stairs, W. J.; Smith, Sir A. J.; Troop, J. C. Bib.: Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe, ed. by J. A. Chisholm; Howe, Confederation considered in relation to the Interests of the Empire; Burpee, Joseph Howe and the Anti-Confederation League, in Trans. R.S.C., 1916.

Anticosti. Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with area of 2,460,000 acres. About 140 miles long and thirty-five miles broad at widest part. The first mention of the island is in Cartier’s narrative of his first voyage, 1534. The following year he again visited the island, which he named Isle de l’Assomption. On the origin of the present Indian name, see W. F. Ganong’s note, Royal Society Trans., 1889, II, 51. Louis XIV granted the island to Louis Jolliet in recognition of his geographical discoveries. Placed under jurisdiction of Newfoundland in 1763; transferred to Canada, 1774. Purchased by Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer, who stocked it with game and maintained it for some years as an immense estate. Bib.: Huard, Labrador et Anticosti; Guay, Lettres sur l’île Anticosti; Schmitt, Monographie de l’île d’Anticosti; Lewis, Menier and his Island.

Archibald, Sir Adams George (1814-1892). Educated at Pictou Academy. Studied law; in 1838 called to the bar of Prince Edward Island; and to that of Nova Scotia in 1839. Elected to the Nova Scotia Assembly for Colchester, 1851. Solicitor-general of Nova Scotia, 1856; attorney-general, 1860-1863. Delegate to the various Conferences leading up to Confederation. Became secretary of state for the provinces in the first Dominion ministry, 1867. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1870-1872; and of Nova Scotia, 1873-1883. Knighted, 1885. Bib.: Expulsion of Acadians (N.S. Hist. Soc., vol. 5). For biog., see Dent, Can. Por.; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Archibald, Sir Edward Mortimer (1810-1884). Born at Truro, Nova Scotia. Son of S. G. W. Archibald (q.v.). Studied law and called to the bar, 1831. The following year he was appointed Registrar of the Supreme Court of Newfoundland, and Clerk of the Assembly, and became attorney-general in 1841. Advocated reciprocity with the United States as early as 1849; and took a prominent part in the agitation in Newfoundland for a complete measure of responsible government, which was finally conceded in 1855. After a residence of twenty-three years in Newfoundland, he left the Ancient Colony, and after spending two years in Nova Scotia, was appointed, in 1857, British Consul at New York. This diplomatic post, second only in importance to that of ambassador, he occupied for twenty-six years, through such critical times as those of the War of the Rebellion, the Fenian Raids, and the Alabama Claims. As Sir Robert Borden has said, he filled this difficult office with keen foresight and wide vision, and earned not only the grateful appreciation of his own government, but the esteem and confidence of the government to which he was accredited. Bib.: Archibald, Life and Letters of Sir Edward Mortimer Archibald.

Archibald, Samuel George William (1777-1846). Born in Colchester County, Nova Scotia. Studied law and practised in Nova Scotia; obtained a seat in the Legislature; became Speaker, solicitor-general and afterwards attorney-general of the province. Chief-justice of Prince Edward Island, 1824-1828, remaining Speaker of the Nova Scotia Assembly and solicitor-general, during the whole term of his incumbency of the chief-justiceship. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Longworth, Life of S. G. W. Archibald.

Archives. Provision was made by the Parliament of Canada, in 1872, for an Archives Branch, and Douglas Brymner was appointed Dominion Archivist. His first report appeared in 1873. The earlier reports were of a preliminary nature, but in 1884 the first of the important series of calendars was included in the report. Abbé Verreau made a special report on historical material in Europe bearing on Canadian history, published in 1874. A report on manuscript material in the colonial archives at Paris, by Edouard Richard, was published as a supplement to the report for 1899. Dr. Brymner died in 1902, and Arthur G. Doughty was appointed Dominion Archivist in 1904. The report for 1905, in three volumes, represented a new departure; the publication of calendars was abandoned, and replaced by volumes containing series of documents relating to definite subjects, systematically arranged. The archives were moved into a special building in 1907. In 1910 began the issue of a series of publications, containing historical journals and other special material. In 1925 a new wing was added to the archives building at Ottawa. Provincial archives, of a more or less distinct character, have also been established in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Alberta.

Arctic Archipelago. Embraces the islands lying north of the mainland of Canada. Canada’s title rests on the discovery of these islands by British explorers, their transfer to the Dominion by the Imperial government, and the fact that they have been officially taken possession of and occupied on behalf of the Dominion government in recent years. By Imperial order-in-council, June 23rd, 1870, Rupert’s Land and the North-western Territory were united to Canada. The former, as claimed by the Hudson’s Bay Company, included parts of Cockburn Land and Baffin Land, north of Hudson Strait. The North-western Territory included all the unorganized territory to the west, and possibly to the north, of Canada and Rupert’s Land. Doubts existing as to the northerly and north-easterly boundaries of these territories, an Imperial order-in-council was passed July 31st, 1880, transferring to Canada “all British territories and possessions in North America not already included in the Dominion of Canada, and all islands adjacent to such territories or possessions” (except Newfoundland and its dependencies). This was confirmed by an Act of the British Parliament in 1895. Later in the same year a Canadian order-in-council was passed, and another in 1897, formally assigning the Arctic Islands to provisional districts then created. Mounted Police posts were established in these districts and the laws of Canada are in force therein. See also Sir Martin Frobisher; John Davis; Henry Hudson; Sir Thomas Button; Bylot and Baffin; Sir John Ross; Sir William Edward Parry; Sir John Franklin; Sir Robert McClure; Sir Edward Belcher; Sir Francis Leopold McClintock; Captain Joseph Elzear Bernier; Vilhjalmur Stefansson. Bib.: Johnson, Canada’s Northern Fringe; King, Report upon the Title of Canada to the Islands north of the Mainland of Canada.

Arctic Coast. First reached by Samuel Hearne, at mouth of Coppermine, 1771; by Alexander Mackenzie at mouth of the Mackenzie, 1789. Sir John Franklin reached the coast overland in 1821. Between that year and 1854 the Arctic Coast was surveyed by Richardson, Back, Dease and Simpson, Rae, and Anderson, from Point Barrow in the west to Melville Peninsula in the east. See under these names. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Argall, Sir Samuel. Born in Walthamstow, England. A type of the founders of British colonial dominion. Sent, May, 1609, with a small vessel to the new settlement at Jamestown, Va., to trade and fish. The following year took out Lord Delaware to Jamestown, arriving in time to save the colony from starvation. In 1612 carried off Pocahontas to the settlement of Jamestown. Later in the year sent with a vessel of fourteen guns to destroy the French settlements on the north coast, regarded as infringing on the Virginia patent. Captured Mount Desert, St. Croix, and Port Royal. On return voyage forced the commandant at New Amsterdam to recognize English suzerainty by hauling down the Dutch flag and running up the English. May, 1617, made deputy governor of Virginia. In 1620 served against the Algerine pirates under Sir Robert Mansell. Knighted in 1622. In 1625 admiral of a squadron cruising after a hostile Dunkirk fleet, and took some prizes. In October, 1625, with the futile expedition against Cadiz under Lord Wimbledon. Died, 1626. Bib.: Argall’s own narrative; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Calnek and Savary, History of the County of Annapolis.

Argenson, Pierre de Voyer, Vicomte d’ (1626-1710). Succeeded Jean de Lauson as governor of New France, 1658. His governorship marked by personal quarrels with Laval, and a series of humiliating raids throughout the colony by the Iroquois. Recalled in 1661. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Argyll, John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, ninth Duke of (1845-1914). Married H. R. H. Princess Louise, 1871; succeeded to dukedom, 1900. Represented Argyllshire in Parliament, 1868-1878. Governor-general of Canada (as Marquis of Lorne), 1878-1883. Founded Royal Society of Canada, 1881. His tenure of office was marked by such notable events in Canadian history as the adoption of the National Policy, the turning of the first sod of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the organization of the North-West into Provisional Districts. Bib.: Works: Memories of Canada and Scotland; Imperial Federation; Canadian Pictures; Passages from the Past. For biography, see Dent, Can. Por.; Who’s Who; Collins, Canada under the Administration of Lord Lorne.

Armistice. In War of 1812. Arranged by Sir George Prevost and General Dearborn, in 1812, to the mortification of Brock. It helped the Americans and crippled Brock. The capture of Detroit had inspired the Canadians and depressed the Americans, and, as Brock’s biographer says: “If General Brock’s hands had not been tied, he would doubtless have swept the frontier from Sandusky to St. Regis.”

Armour, John Douglas (1830-1903). Educated at Upper Canada College and the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar, 1853; made Q. C., 1867; Bencher of the Law Society, 1871. Appointed a puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench of Ontario, 1877; raised to the chief-justiceship, 1887. Chief-justice of Ontario and president of the Court of Appeal, 1890. Judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1902; in the same year represented Canada on the Alaska Boundary Commission. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Armstrong, Lawrence. Came to Nova Scotia as lieutenant-colonel of General Philipps’s regiment. Appointed to the governor’s Council, 1720. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1724; held office until 1739. Served in America for more than thirty years. Committed suicide, 1739. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Arnold, Benedict (1741-1801). A druggist at New Haven, Conn. When the War of Independence broke out, in 1775, organized an expedition against the British on Lake Champlain. The same year led a body of picked men to Quebec by way of the Kennebec and Chaudière. After the unsuccessful assault on Quebec, was in several small engagements near Montreal; burnt the château of Senneville; narrowly escaped capture; finally driven out of the province. Commanded American vessels on Lake Champlain. Defeated near Crown Point. Given command of Philadelphia; took offence at slights put upon him by Congress, and attempted to betray West Point to Clinton. Afterwards commanded a corps of American refugees on the British side. In 1797 was an unsuccessful applicant for a grant of land in Upper Canada. Simcoe reported against it as “General Arnold is a character extremely obnoxious to the original Loyalists of America.” Arnold lived for some years in St. John, N. B., where he was equally unpopular. He settled for a time in the West Indies, and died in London. See also Montgomery; Ethan Allen; American Invasion. Bib.: Arnold, Life of Benedict Arnold; Todd, The Real Benedict Arnold; Sparks, American Biography; Codman, Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec; Henry, Arnold’s Campaign against Quebec; Smith, Arnold’s March from Cambridge to Quebec; Jones, The Campaign for the Conquest of Canada in 1776; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Aroostook War, 1839. Arose out of the unsettled boundary question between Maine and New Brunswick, each side claiming certain disputed territory. Troops were called out on both sides, but fortunately more sober counsels prevailed at the last minute, and General Winfield Scott and Sir John Harvey came to an agreement. Bib.: Sprague, The North-Eastern Boundary Controversy and the Aroostook War; Roberts, History of Canada.

Arthur, Sir George (1784-1854). The last lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1838-1841. He succeeded Sir Francis Bond Head, and inherited the difficult task of cleaning up after the Rebellion, a task in which he had only indifferent success. He has been condemned for unnecessary severity to those who had been involved in the Rebellion, or were suspected of disloyalty. Had been successively governor of Honduras and Van Diemen’s Land previous to his Canadian appointment; and on leaving Canada appointed to the governorship of Bombay. See Rebellion of 1837 (Upper Canada). Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Baron (1774-1848). Entered Parliament in 1806. Opposed measures against American commerce. President of board of trade and master of mint, 1834. Raised to peerage, 1835. Commissioner at Washington for settlement of boundary dispute, 1842. He was bitterly condemned for sacrificing the interests of Canada in the treaty, but the fact seems to be that of the territory in dispute between Maine and New Brunswick, the United States actually got less in 1842 than had been awarded to her some years before by the King of the Netherlands, and which at the time the United States Senate had refused to accept. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Ashburton Treaty. Negotiated between Great Britain and the United States, 1842, Lord Ashburton acting for the former and Daniel Webster on behalf of the latter. Provided for the settlement of the international boundary between Maine and Canada. Of the territory in dispute, the United States got about seven-twelfths and Canada five-twelfths. Also provided for the determination of the boundary in the St. Mary River and thence to the Lake of the Woods; for the free navigation of the St. John River; for the suppression of the slave trade, and for the extradition of criminals. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Winsor, Narrative and Critical History, Vol. vii; White, The Ashburton Treaty, in Univ. Mag., October, 1907; The Ashburton Treaty: an Afterword, in Univ. Mag., December, 1908; Houston, Canadian Constitutional Documents; Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions.

Assembly. See Legislative Assembly.

Assiniboia. One of the provisional districts carved out of the North-West Territories, in 1882. Now included in the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, principally in the latter.

Assiniboin Indians. From assini the Cree name for a stone and bwan a native name of the Sioux—or Stone-Sioux. A tribe of the Siouan family; first mentioned in the Jesuit Relation of 1640. They separated from the parent stock early in the seventeenth century, and moved north and north-west to the region about Lake Winnipeg. Later they spread over the country west of Lake Winnipeg, to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. La Vérendrye was the first traveller to visit them and describe their manners and customs. Their population was estimated at 8,000 in 1829. One-half this number perished in the smallpox epidemic in 1836. They are now settled on reservations in Alberta, and in Montana. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Assiniboine. Mountain peak in Rockies. About thirty miles by trail south of Banff. Known as the “Canadian Matterhorn.” Height, 11,860 feet. Named by Dr. G. M. Dawson in 1884 after the tribe of Indians who hunt in the Rockies. First climbed by Sir James Outram in 1901. Bib.: Outram, In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies.

Assiniboine River. Discovered by La Vérendrye in 1736. Fort Rouge was built at the mouth of the river in that year, as well as Fort La Reine, near the present city of Portage la Prairie. From the latter fort, two years later, La Vérendrye set forth on his memorable journey to the Mandan Indians on the Missouri. Before the close of the century, both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company had trading establishments at various points on the river. First named Rivière St. Charles; afterwards Rivière des Assiliboilles, and Stone Indian River; finally settling in present form. Bib.: Bryce, Assiniboine River and its Forts (R. S. C., 1892); Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Hind, Canadian Red River and Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expeditions.

Association of Canadian Refugees. Organized by William Lyon Mackenzie in 1839, with the purpose of securing the independence of Canada. Meeting held at Rochester, N.Y., and a confidential circular was issued. John Montgomery elected president, and Mackenzie, secretary. Nothing much else was done.

Astor, John Jacob (1763-1848). Born in Waldorf, Germany. Came to America in 1783 and embarked in the fur trade. Founder of Astor Fur Company. He was closely associated with the Canadian fur trade for some years, had a warehouse in Montreal, and had intimate business and social relations with the traders of the North West Company. Later, he became a most aggressive and resourceful rival of the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company. He founded the South West Company in 1808, which later bought out the Mackinac Company. The Pacific Fur Company was also due to his enterprise, and later the American Fur Company. Alexander Ross, of the North West Company, says of Astor and his ambitious plans: “He was to have annihilated the South Company, rivalled the North West Company, extinguished the Hudson’s Bay Company, driven the Russians into the Frozen Ocean, and with the resources of China to have enriched America.” Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Astoria. On the Columbia River, near its mouth. Established by Pacific Fur Company, 1811. Turned over to the North West Company, 1813, and renamed Fort George. The scene of Washington Irving’s delightful narrative Astoria. The fort stood on the banks of the Columbia River, near its mouth. Bib.: Franchère, Voyage to the North-West Coast of America; Cox, Adventures on the Columbia River; Ross, Adventures of First Settlers on Columbia River; Henry-Thompson Journals, ed. by Coues; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Bradbury, Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810, and 1811.

Astorians. Name applied to members of the two expeditions fitted out by John Jacob Astor, to found trading establishments at the mouth of the Columbia. One party sailed around the Horn in the Tonquin; the other went overland by way of the Missouri and the Columbia. See also Pacific Fur Company; Tonquin.

Athabaska. One of the provisional districts formed out of the North-West Territories in 1882; area about 122,000 square miles. Now divided between the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, forming the northern half of each.

Athabaska. Rocky Mountain peak. Name is Algonquin for “place where there are seeds,” originally applied to delta of Athabaska river. In the Freshfield group, north of Rocky Mountain Park. Height, 11,900 feet. First climbed by J. K. Collie and H. Woolley in 1898. Bib.: Stutfield and Collie, Climbs and Explorations in the Canadian Rockies.

Athabaska Lake. A Cree name meaning “muddy plain,” applied originally to the delta formed by the Peace river and the Athabaska where they enter the lake. Known at one time as Lake of the Hills. First discovered by Peter Pond, about 1778. Philip Turnor, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, surveyed and mapped the lake between 1790 and 1792. Both Peter Fidler and David Thompson reached the lake by way of the Reindeer river and lake, Wollaston lake and Black river, the latter in 1796, the former probably a few years later. In 1788 the first trading post on the lake was built by Roderick McKenzie of the North West Company, and named Fort Chipewyan. It was afterwards moved to the north side of the lake. Still maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Athabaska Pass. Discovered by David Thompson of the North West Company, in January, 1811. There is some evidence that it may have been discovered by William Henry, of the same Company, a year or two earlier, acting under Thompson’s instructions. The pass was used for half a century or more by the traders as a route from the Athabaska to the Columbia. Among the famous travellers who used it were Gabriel Franchère, Ross Cox and Alexander Ross, whose books are among the classics of fur trade literature; Father De Smet, the missionary; David Douglas, the botanist, after whom the Douglas fir was named; and Paul Kane, the painter of Indian pictures. Bib.: Burpee, On the Old Athabaska Trail.

Athabaska River. Rises in the watershed range of the Rocky Mountains, close to the head waters of the north branch of the North Saskatchewan, and after a course of 765 miles empties into Athabaska Lake. Discovered, in 1778, by Peter Pond, who built a fur trading post on its banks. Known also at different times as Elk river and Rivière a la Biche. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Aube-Rivière, François Louis de Pourroy de l’. Appointed bishop of Quebec, August 16th, 1739. Arrived at Quebec, August 12th, 1740, and died of fever on the twentieth of the same month.

Aubert de Gaspé, Philippe (1786-1871). A French-Canadian writer, whose works are invaluable for the light they throw on the manners and customs of the French in Canada about the time of the Conquest. Bib.: Works: Les Anciens Canadiens, translated into English by Mrs. Pennie, and by C. G. D. Roberts; Mémoires. For biog., see Casgrain, Biographies Canadiennes; Roy, Etude sur “Les Anciens Canadiens” (R. S. C., 1906).

Aubert de la Chesnaye, Charles (1630-1702). Born at Amiens. Came to Canada, 1655. Chief Clerk of the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales, 1665. Engaged in the fur trade at Cataraqui, 1674. In 1677 obtained a grant of Ile Dupas. In 1679 made a visit to Paris, and in 1683 back again at Cataraqui. In 1696 prepared an important memoir on the commerce of the colony. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Aulneau, Jean-Pierre (1705-1736). Jesuit missionary, with La Vérendrye in his western explorations. Murdered by Sioux on an island in the Lake of the Woods, May, 1736. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Avaugour, Pierre Dubois, Baron d’. Governor of New France, 1661-1663, succeeding D’Argenson. He was at variance with the Jesuits as to the existing liquor laws, which he thought too severe. His is described as the only sober description of the great earthquake of 1663. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Axel Heiberg Island. In Arctic archipelago, extreme north, west of Ellesmere Island. Named by Sverdrup after one of the patrons of the expedition of 1898-1902.

Aylesworth, Allen Bristol (1854-). Born in Newburg, Ontario. Educated at Newburg High School and at the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1878; practised his profession in Toronto; appointed one of the British commissioners in connection with the settlement of the Alaska boundary, 1903; elected to the House of Commons, 1905; postmaster-general and minister of labour, 1905; minister of justice, 1906; British agent in connection with the Fisheries case before the Hague Tribunal, 1910. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Aylmer, Matthew, Baron (1842-1923). Born in Melbourne, Quebec. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Served with the 7th Royal Fusiliers in the Mediterranean and Canada. Saw service in the Fenian Raids, 1866 and 1870. Became adjutant-general of Canada, 1896; Inspector-general of Canadian forces, 1906. Major-general, 1907. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Aylmer, Matthew Whitworth, Baron (1775-1850). Entered the army, 1787; served in the West Indies, in Holland, and in the Peninsula under Wellington. Reached the full rank of general, 1825; and in 1830 became governor-general of Canada; returned to England, 1835. He was not on very friendly terms with Papineau and his associates, and was bitterly attacked in the Ninety-Two Resolutions. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Aylwin, Thomas Cushing (1806-1871). Born in Quebec city. Studied law and called to the bar, 1828. First entered public life, 1841, as member for Portneuf. He was opposed to the union of the provinces. After filling the office of solicitor-general in two administrations, raised to the bench, 1848. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Baby, James (1762-1833). Born at Detroit. Educated at Quebec Seminary, and in 1784 travelled in Europe. On his return the following year engaged in the fur trade at Detroit. On the formation of the province of Upper Canada in 1791, appointed a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. Simcoe made him lieutenant for the county of Kent and judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Commanded the 1st Regiment of Kent militia in the War of 1812. In 1815 succeeded McGill as inspector-general of accounts for Upper Canada. Bib.: Daniel, Nos Gloires Nationales; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Baby, Louis François Georges (1834-1906). Born in Montreal. Studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1857; made a Q. C., 1873. Represented Joliette in Dominion House, 1872-1880; minister of inland revenue, 1878-1880. Appointed puisne judge of Superior Court, 1880; transferred to Queen’s Bench, 1881. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men.

Back, Sir George (1796-1878). Entered the navy as midshipman in 1808; accompanied Franklin on his Arctic expeditions of 1818, 1819-1822, and 1824-1827. Promoted lieutenant, 1822, and commander, 1827. In 1833-1835, led an expedition through what is now northern Canada, to the shores of the Arctic, to ascertain the fate of Captain Ross. The expedition resulted in the exploration of Great Fish River, which was renamed Back River in honour of the explorer. In 1836 explored the Arctic coast, between Regent Inlet and Cape Turnagain. Twice granted the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society; knighted, 1839; promoted admiral, 1857. Bib.: Works: Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition; Narrative of Expedition in H. M. S. Terror. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.

Badgley, William (1801-1888). Born in Montreal. Studied law and called to the bar, 1823. Member of the Legislative Assembly, 1847-1855; member of the Executive Council for Lower Canada, 1847-1848; appointed attorney-general. Judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1855-1863; assistant judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench for Quebec, 1863-1864; puisne judge of the same Court, 1866-1874. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Baffin, William. Born in London about 1584. Made a voyage of discovery to Greenland in 1612. Three years later sailed as pilot of the Discovery in search of the North-West Passage, traced the coast of Hudson Strait and the western side of Fox Channel as far as Frozen Strait. He was satisfied as a result of this voyage of 1615 that the North-West Passage was not to be found by way of Hudson Bay. In 1616 discovered and made a chart of Smith’s Sound and explored the bay afterwards associated with his name. Killed at the siege of Ormuz, 1622. See also Bylot. Bib.: Voyages of William Baffin, ed. by Markham.

Baffin Island. The great island that lies north of Hudson Strait. Named, like the bay between Greenland and Baffin Island, after William Baffin the explorer and navigator. Fox Land and Cockburn Land occupy respectively the south and north ends of the island. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Bagot, Sir Charles (1781-1843). Born in England. Educated at Rugby and Oxford; entered Parliament, 1807, becoming under-secretary for foreign affairs. Minister plenipotentiary to France, 1814; and to the United States, 1815-1820. Privy councillor, 1815; ambassador to St. Petersburg, 1820; and to the Hague, 1824. Governor-general of Canada, 1841-1843. His term of office embraced the very important period immediately following the Union of Upper and Lower Canada and the adoption of the principles of responsible government. Died in Kingston soon after retiring from office. Bib.: Richardson, Eight Years in Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada; Dent, Last Forty Years and Can. Por.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Baie de Chaleur. In west coast of Gulf of St. Lawrence, on boundary between Quebec and New Brunswick. Discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1534, described in his narrative, and so named because he found it as warm there as in sunny Spain.

Bain, James (1842-1908). Born in London, England. Came to Canada with his parents at an early age; educated at the Toronto Academy and the Toronto Grammar School. Spent some years in London engaged in the publishing business. Returned to Canada, 1882; appointed chief librarian of Toronto Public Library, 1883, and built it up into a very strong reference library, particularly rich in Canadian history. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.; ed. Alexander Henry’s Travels and Adventures.

Baldoon. A settlement near Lake St. Clair in Upper Canada, made by Lord Selkirk, 1803, and named after one of his own estates. Some of the Highland settlers he had brought out to Prince Edward Island subsequently removed to Baldoon. Situated in a swampy district, the settlement did not thrive, and the War of 1812 added its hardships to those of fever and ague.

Baldoon Street. Built by Selkirk settlers, from Baldoon to Chatham on the River Thames, early in nineteenth century.

Baldwin, Robert (1804-1858). Born and educated at York, he studied law and was called to the bar in 1825. Politically he was a Moderate Reformer, temperamentally opposed to unconstitutional measures, the dominant idea in his political programme being the adoption of responsible government. Entered public life in 1829, when he was elected to represent York in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Defeated following year. About this time he became closely associated with Francis Hincks. In 1836 appointed a member of the Executive Council by Sir Francis Bond Head. Finding his views hopelessly at variance with those of the governor, he resigned the same year. Baldwin was a consistent reformer, but had no sympathy with the Rebellion of 1837-1838, or with the extreme views of William Lyon Mackenzie and his associates. Appointed by Sydenham solicitor-general of Upper Canada, 1840, in the new Legislature of the United Provinces, and made an executive councillor the following year. Finding the governor-general had no intention of granting self-government, he promptly resigned. With Hincks he entered into an alliance with the moderate party in Lower Canada to work for responsible government. In 1842 on a reconstruction of the government, he became attorney-general for Upper Canada, in what was afterwards known as the Baldwin-LaFontaine administration. Among the important measures introduced this year, was his bill to create a non-sectarian University of Toronto. In 1843 the ministry resigned on the vexed question of ministerial responsibility, and Baldwin returned for a time to the practice of law in Toronto. Here he headed an agitation against the governor, Metcalfe, which led to the formation of the Reform Association, whose main plank was the application of the principles of the constitution of the mother country to Canadian affairs. In 1844 re-elected for York, and moved vote of censure against the governor-general for having violated the principles of the constitution by governing without a ministry. Two years later he made a political tour of the western part of Upper Canada, and in the election of 1847 was again elected for York. The Reform party having swept the country, the second Baldwin-LaFontaine ministry was formed, which remained in power from 1848 to 1851, when Baldwin finally retired from public life. Among the measures for which he was mainly responsible was what is known as the Baldwin Act, which laid the foundation of Ontario’s form of municipal government. It was the culmination of Baldwin’s long fight for responsible government. He also put through the bill for a non-sectarian university which he had first introduced some years before. Baldwin was also largely responsible for certain Acts revising the judicial system of Upper Canada. Although he had opposed the Rebellion, Baldwin supported in the legislature both the Amnesty Act and the Rebellion Losses Bill. After his retirement from public life, he was offered the chief-justiceship of Common Pleas for Upper Canada, and was also nominated for a seat on the Legislative Council, but failing health compelled him to decline both offers. Summing up the joint work of Baldwin and his great French-Canadian colleague LaFontaine, Professor Leacock says: “To find a real basis of political union between French and British Canada, to substitute for the strife of unreconciled races the fellow-citizenship of two great people, and set up in the foremost of British colonies an example of self-government that should prove the lasting basis of empire—this was the completed work by which they had amply earned the rest of eventide after the day of toil.” Bib.: Baldwin, Correspondence (Toronto Public Library MSS); Davin, The Irishman in Canada; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Can. Por.; and Last Forty Years; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Hincks, Political History of Canada.

Baldwin, William Warren. Father of Robert Baldwin. Born in Ireland. Came to Canada 1798, and finally settled in York, now known as Toronto, where he practised medicine. He subsequently opened a classical school; and later engaged in legal practice. President of the Constitutional Reform Society, 1836. Represented Norfolk in the Legislature of Upper Canada. Member of Legislative Council, 1843. Died, 1844. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Scadding, Toronto of Old.

Bank of Montreal. The first bank in Canada, founded in 1817. Began with a paid-up capital of $350,000. In 1925 capital $29,906,000, with a reserve of the same amount. Over 600 branches. It has counted among its presidents such eminent Canadians as John Molson, Peter McGill, Lord Mount Stephen and Lord Strathcona. Closely associated with the financing of such great enterprises as the Canadian Pacific Railway. Absorbed the Ontario Bank, Bank of British North America, the Merchants Bank, and Molson’s Bank. Bib.: Centenary of the Bank of Montreal, 1817-1917.

Bank of Nova Scotia. Established, 1832. Authorized stock, £100,000. In 1925 $10,000,000, with a reserve of $19,500,000. Absorbed a number of other banks in Nova Scotia and elsewhere. Branches throughout Canada and the West Indies, as well as in parts of South America. Bib.: History of the Bank of Nova Scotia.

Bank of Upper Canada. Established, 1823, with a capital of $41,364, which had increased in 1859 to $3,126,250. Its headquarters were in Toronto. After a long, prosperous career the bank stopped payment in 1866, the chief cause being the collapse in real estate in Canada West in 1857-1858. Bib.: See Banking.

Banking. The first bank established in Canada was the Bank of Montreal, which dates from the year 1817. The Bank of Quebec was established in 1818; and the Bank of Canada the same year. All three were chartered in 1822. A Banking Act was passed in 1841, providing a uniform system of banking. The Act of 1850 prohibited banks other than those incorporated by Parliament or royal charter from issuing notes. It also provided for a deposit with the government to be held as a guarantee; also for bank statistics. Other provisions designed to place banking on a more secure footing were incorporated in the Act of 1871. Further banking legislation was passed in 1881 and in 1890. The tendency in recent years has been to consolidate the banking business of the country in a few powerful banks with many branches. See also under names of individual banks. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada; Shortt, Early History of Canadian Banking; History of Canadian Currency, Banking and Exchange; Breckenridge, Canadian Banking System; Hague, Banking and Commerce; Historical Sketch of Canadian Banking in Canada: An Ency., vol. 1; Walker, History of Banking in Canada.

Banks Island. Westernmost island of the Arctic Archipelago. Named by Parry in 1820 after Sir Joseph Banks (1744-1820), president of the Royal Society for forty-two years. His name was also given to an island in Hecate Strait, coast of British Columbia. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Banner. Newspaper, published at Toronto. Founded in 1883 by Peter and George Brown. Fought for the principles of responsible government. Name subsequently changed to the Globe. See Globe.

Baptist Church. Like several other religious denominations in Canada, it had its origin in Nova Scotia. Some Baptists were living in Lunenburg as early as 1753. In 1800 the first Baptist Association was formed at Granville, Nova Scotia, and by 1850 there were Baptist Associations in many parts of the province. In 1828 the Nova Scotia Baptist Educational Society was established. First established in Fredericton, N.B., 1813. The first church was built in Montreal, 1830; and in 1834 the Baptist Seminary of New Brunswick was founded at Fredericton. In 1852 the Baptist Missionary Society of Canada was established. Since then the Baptists have grown rapidly in all the provinces, and several Baptist colleges and institutions have been established, notably Acadia and McMaster Universities (q.v.). The Baptist Church was organized in British Columbia in 1877. Strength in Canada by the census of 1921, 421,731. Bib.: Wells, History of the Baptist Denomination in Canada in Canada: An Ency., vol. 3; Hill, Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Baranof, Alexander Andrevitch (1747-1819). Governor of Russian America. Had been manager of a glass factory in Irkutsk, Siberia; grew tired of the monotonous though profitable business and engaged in the fur trade of eastern Siberia. Appointed governor of the principal Russian trading company in America, 1790. Nine years later, the different companies were united, and Baranof moved his headquarters from Kodiak to New Archangel (Sitka), where he built a strong fort, with a shipyard, foundry, churches and hospitals. Even a library and picture-gallery were afterwards added to this little outpost of Russian civilization. The Russian-American Fur Company established trading posts at different points, and came into indirect contact with the North West Company, and later into more direct relations with the Hudson’s Bay Company. Eventually the immense territory they occupied, including the long coastal strip afterwards known as the Panhandle, was sold to the United States, and Canada lost the coast north of Portland Canal. In 1818 Baranof sailed for home, and died at sea on the voyage. Bib.: Laut, Vikings of the Pacific.

Barclay, Robert H. Born in Scotland. Took part in the battle of Trafalgar. Sent to Canada, and commander of British naval force on Lake Erie in 1813. On September 10th, 1813, defeated by the American fleet under Perry. Subsequently court-martialled, but acquitted. His defeat was due not to his own incapacity but to the fact that he was distinctly inferior in men, guns and equipment to the Americans, for which conditions not he but his superior officers were to blame. Died 1837. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812. See also War of 1812.

Barclay, Thomas (1753-1830). Born in New York. A graduate of Columbia College, and studied law under John Jay. In 1775 served in the British army during the American Revolution, and in 1777 became major. At the end of the war moved to Nova Scotia; entered the House of Assembly, and for some time Speaker. Appointed adjutant-general of militia; served as a commissioner under Jay’s Treaty; appointed consul-general at New York for the Northern and Eastern states. Commissioner under fourth and fifth articles of the Treaty of Ghent. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Barker, William George (1894-). Went overseas with 1st C.M. Rifles, 1915. Transferred to Royal Air Force same year. Officially credited with fifty-two enemy machines. Decorated with Victoria Cross, D.S.O. with one Bar, Military Cross with two Bars, Italian Silver Medal for Valour, French Croix de Guerre. Promoted Captain, Major and Lieutenant-Colonel. Served in France and Italy.

Barkley, Charles William (1759-1832). Served in the East India Company; sailed on a trading voyage for sea-otter skins to the North-West Coast, 1787. Brought his bride with him, the first white woman on the North-West Coast. Discovered and named Juan de Fuca Strait the same year, and carried his cargo of furs to China. In 1792 made another voyage to the North-West Coast, again accompanied by his wife, who kept interesting journals of both voyages. Died at North Crescent, Hartford. Barkley Sound, Vancouver Island, discovered and named by him. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Baronets of Nova Scotia. An order created by James I, in 1625, for the purpose of “advancing the plantation of Nova Scotia.” The scheme, which King James had deeply at heart, was designed to assist Sir William Alexander in his ambitious plans of colonization in the New World, by offering a special inducement to men of position in Scotland to take tracts of land in Nova Scotia, and to bring out numbers of colonists to settle upon them. See also Stirling. Bib.: Duncan, Royal Province of New Scotland and her Baronets; Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia; Patterson, Sir William Alexander (R. S. C., 1892); Mackenzie, Baronets of Nova Scotia (R. S. C., 1901); Royal Letters, Charters and Tracts Relating to the Colonisation of Nova Scotia and the Institution of the Order of Knights Baronet of Nova Scotia; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Barré, Isaac (1726-1802). Born in Ireland. Served under Wolfe against Rochefort in 1757, and at Quebec in 1759, being at Wolfe’s side when he fell. Entered Parliament, 1761, and a member until 1790. In 1763-1764 adjutant-general and governor of Stirling; in 1764-1768, vice-treasurer of Ireland and a privy councillor; in 1782, treasurer of the navy. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Barren Grounds. The region of northern Canada, lying between the Mackenzie River and Hudson Bay, and from the northern timber-line to the Arctic. First visited by Samuel Hearne in 1770-1772. Later explorers who traversed portions of the country are Franklin, in 1821; Back, in 1833; Dease and Simpson, in 1839; Richardson, in 1848; and Anderson, in 1855. Within more recent years, Warburton Pike, J. B. Tyrrell, J. W. Tyrrell, D. T. Hanbury and Caspar Whitney have explored parts of the Barren Grounds. Bib.: Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean; Franklin, Narrative; Back, Arctic Land Expedition; Simpson, North Coasts of America; Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition; Anderson, Descent of Great Fish River, in Royal Geog. Soc. Journal, 1856 and 1857; Pike, Barren Grounds; Tyrrell, Across the Sub-Arctics; Hanbury, Northland of Canada; Whitney, On Snowshoes to the Barren Grounds.

Barrie on Lake Simcoe. Town of Ontario. Named after Commodore Robert Barrie, who was stationed at Kingston during the war of 1812-1814, and for some years thereafter. In 1823 he is mentioned as acting commissioner of the navy at Kingston, and in 1828 made an official visit to York in H. M. Schooner Cockburn. Sir John Franklin visited Barrie in 1819 on his way overland to the Arctic.

Barron, Colin. Corporal, 3rd Battalion, C.E.F. Awarded the Victoria Cross for conspicuous bravery at Passchendaele Ridge, November 6th, 1917. He rushed enemy machine-guns single-handed, killed four of the crew and captured the remainder. Then turned one of the guns on the retiring enemy, his action producing far-reaching results and enabling the advance to be continued.

Barter. This primitive means of exchange was in use in the early days of New France. Men bartered a lot of ground for two cows and a pair of stockings, or an ox for a quantity of grain. Similar conditions prevailed in the pioneer days of Upper Canada, and in Western Canada. Barter was also the basis of the fur trade—goods for furs, but here a form of currency was afterwards introduced, the unit being the assumed value of a beaver skin, represented by metal or other tokens. Both the Hudson’s Bay Company and the North-West Company used copper tokens, which are now very rare. Only seven of the N. W. C. Beaver tokens are known to exist. Plus was a term expressing the monetary unit of the fur trade and represented one good beaver skin. See Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, I, 7. See also Currency.

Barthe, J. G. Took part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Afterwards became editor of L’Avenir du Canada. Member for Yamaska in Canadian Assembly, 1841-1844.

Basques. A pre-Aryan race, occupying the border-land between France and Spain. Assertions have repeatedly been made that they made voyages to America, and discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, before Cartier, and even before Cabot, but these have never been substantiated. All the evidence goes to show that they frequented the Newfoundland fisheries in the sixteenth century, but not earlier. Bib.: Dawson, The St. Lawrence Basin; Reade, The Basques in North America (R. S. C., 1888); Howley, Old Basque Tombstones at Placentia.

Bathurst, Henry, third Earl (1762-1834). Succeeded to the title, 1794. Entered Parliament, 1793; president of the board of trade, 1807; foreign secretary, 1809; and secretary for war and the colonies, 1812. Directed Britain’s colonial policy during the important administrations of Prevost, Sherbrooke and Dalhousie, in Lower Canada, and of Brock, Gore and Maitland, in Upper Canada. Lord president of the Council, 1828-1830; one of the original members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 1833. As colonial secretary he was involved in the Clergy Reserves question. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Courts and Cabinets of George IV.

Bathurst Island. One of the Arctic Archipelago. North of Melville Sound. Discovered by Parry in 1819. Named after the Earl of Bathurst, then Secretary for War and the Colonies.

Battle of the Plains. See Plains of Abraham.

Battleford. A town on the North Saskatchewan, at the mouth of the Battle River. Founded in 1875; incorporated as a town in 1904. In the Rebellion of 1885, it was threatened by Poundmaker’s warriors, and relieved by Otter’s Column. The Battle of Cut Knife Hill was fought about thirty-five miles from Battleford. See also Riel Rebellion, 1885.

Battles. See Amiens; Batoche; Beaver Dam; Bourlon Wood; Cambrai; Chateauguay; Cook’s Mills; Crysler’s Farm; Cut Knife Hill; Drocourt-Quéant; Duck Lake; Eccles Hill; Festubert; Fish Creek; Fort George; Frenchman’s Creek; Givenchy; Hill Seventy; Israel’s Poort; Lacolle; Lake George; Lens; Loos; Lundy’s Lane; Mafeking; Monongahela; Odelltown; Paardeberg; Passchendaele; Plains of Abraham; Poplar Grove; Queenston Heights; St. Eloi; Ste. Foy; St. Julien; Sanctuary Wood; Seven Oaks; Somme; Thames; Ticonderoga; Vimy Ridge; Windmill Point; Ypres.

Bay of Quinte. See Quinte, Bay of.

Bayfield, Henry Wolsey (1795-1885). Born in Hull, England. Entered the navy, 1806. Had a distinguished career in the navy, and served in Canadian waters, 1814. Subsequently assisted in the survey of the upper St. Lawrence, and appointed Admiralty surveyor, 1817. During his tenure of office surveyed Lakes Erie, Huron, and Superior, with their connecting waters, and almost the whole eastern coast of Canada, including Labrador. Made vice-admiral, 1856, and admiral, 1867. Resided for fourteen years in Quebec, when he removed to Charlottetown. Received the thanks of the Parliament of Canada for his services, 1854. Died in Charlottetown.

Baynes, Edward. Born in England. Served in the West Indies, at the Cape, in the East Indies, and in Malta. From 1794 to 1806 aide-de-camp to Sir James Craig, and in 1807 adjutant-general of the forces in Canada. In the War of 1812 served on the Niagara frontier. Died, 1829. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Edgar, General Brock.

Béarn Regiment. Established, 1595, and served with distinction in a number of European campaigns. Landed at Quebec, June, 1755, with the regiment of Guienne and a portion of the Languedoc battalion, and added to its laurels at Fort Frontenac, Niagara, Oswego, Carillon, Fort William Henry, and Ticonderoga. In 1759, on the Plains of Abraham, it occupied the place of honour, having been stationed by Montcalm in the centre of his line. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Wood, The Fight for Canada.

Beauharnois, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de (1670-1749). Entered French navy, 1686, and rose to the rank of admiral in 1748. In 1726 appointed governor of New France, which position he held until 1747. Took a deep interest in Western exploration, and was a firm friend of La Vérendrye. Reputed to be a natural son of Louis XIV. After his return to France he was made lieutenant-general of naval forces. The first husband of the Empress Josephine was descended from his family. Bib.: Parkman, Half-Century of Conflict; Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Beauharnois, François de (1665-1746). Born in France. Became intendant of New France in 1702 and held the position until 1705. In 1707 granted the barony of Beauville. Appointed intendant de l’armée navale, 1706; intendant of marines, 1710; intendant générale des armées navales, 1739. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Beauport. A village two miles below Quebec. In the Siege of Quebec, 1759, it was the headquarters of the intendant and commissary of stores. Defended by an intrenched camp. In the panic following the Battle of the Plains and the death of Montcalm, the camp was abandoned with all its stores of food and equipment.

Beauséjour. A fort built by the French in 1750-1751, on Chignecto Bay, near Beaubassin, one of the principal Acadian settlements, and three miles from the British Fort Lawrence. A little tidal stream, the Missaguash, ran between—nominally marking the dividing line between British and French territory. The fort was captured by the British under Monckton, in 1755, and renamed Fort Cumberland. The ruins, still in a fair state of preservation in part, are looked after by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, Fight with France; Hannay, History of Acadia; Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Beaven, Robert. Born, 1836. Went to British Columbia and engaged in gold-mining. Worked for Confederation and was secretary of Confederate League. Sat for Victoria in British Columbia Legislature, 1871-1894. Chief commissioner of lands and works, 1872; minister of finance and agriculture, 1878; premier, 1882, resigned, 1883. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Beaver. First steamer on the Pacific, 1835. Built in Great Britain. Her machinery was installed after she arrived at Fort Vancouver. She sailed up and down the north-west coast of North America for forty-three years, and was finally wrecked at the entrance to Burrard Inlet in 1888. Bib.: McCain, History of the S.S. Beaver; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Beaverbrook, Sir Max Aitken, Baron (1879-). Born in Vaughan, Ontario. Engaged for some years in the promotion of large industrial organizations in Canada. Went to England and was elected to the Imperial Parliament for Ashton-under-Lyne, and became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. During the war was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force as “eye-witness” with rank of lieutenant-colonel, and general representative of the Dominion government with Canadian troops at the front. Prepared first two volumes of Canada in Flanders, a semi-official Canadian history of the war. A trustee of the Imperial War Museum, and largely instrumental in securing for Canada material for both a war museum and a very comprehensive collection of war pictures. Minister of information in the British government during the war. Created a baronet, 1916, and a baron, 1917.

Beaver Club. Founded in Montreal in 1775 by the partners of the North West Company. It opened with nineteen members, and at one time the registry showed ninety-three members, with eleven honorary members. Among them were such famous fur traders and explorers as Alexander Mackenzie and his cousin Roderick, the three Frobishers, Alexander Henry and his nephew of the same name, Simon McTavish, James Finlay, Simon Fraser and John Stuart. The motto of the club was “Fortitude in Distress.” No one was admitted who had not made a journey to the North-West and wintered there. The club entertained many distinguished guests, including Sir John Franklin, Lord Selkirk, Washington Irving, and the Earl of Dalhousie. Disbanded in 1824 after the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. An effort to revive it in 1827 proved unsuccessful. Bib.: Hetherington, Canada’s First Social Club, in Univ. Mag., April, 1910; Read, Masters of the Wilderness; Burpee, The Beaver Club, in Annual Report of Can. Hist. Assn., 1924.

Beaver Dam, Battle of. In War of 1812. FitzGibbon commanded a detachment of the 49th Regiment, about fifty men, with several hundred Indians. Boerstler, with a party of 600 men, advanced from Fort George by way of Queenston to surprise him, but was ambushed by a body of Indians. FitzGibbon, who had been warned of the approach of Boerstler by Laura Secord, advanced with his men of the 49th, made very clever and effective use of his Indians who kept firing on the enemy from different points, and demanded the surrender of the Americans, who, believing themselves surrounded by a superior force, capitulated. The engagement took place June 26th, 1813. See also War of 1812; FitzGibbon; Laura Secord. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Hannay, War of 1812; FitzGibbon, A Veteran of 1812; Curzon, Laura Secord, the Heroine of 1812; Cruikshank, The Fight in the Beechwoods; Thompson, Jubilee History of Thorold.

Bédard, Elzéar. For some years a member of the Assembly of Lower Canada. Moved the celebrated Ninety-Two Resolutions, 1837. Puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1837; suspended, but afterwards reinstated. Died, 1849. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Bédard, Pierre Stanislas (1762-1829). Educated at the Seminary of Quebec; studied law, and appointed advocate, 1790. Elected for Northumberland to the first Legislature of Lower Canada, 1792. In 1806, with a number of other French Canadians in the Assembly, founded Le Canadien, to represent the views of the popular party. Sir James Craig, the governor, considered him a dangerous revolutionist. In 1810 the paper was seized, and, although he claimed liberty of the press, Bédard and his associates were arrested on a charge of treasonable practices. Released the following year. In 1812 appointed judge of the District Court of Three Rivers. Retired in 1829 on account of ill health. Bib.: Parent, Pierre Bédard et Ses Deux Fils in Journal d’Instruction Publique, 1859; Christie, History of Lower Canada; De Gaspé, Memoires; Dionne, Pierre Bédard et Ses Fils; Dionne, Pierre Bédard et Son Temps (R. S. C., 1898).

Beechey, Frederick William (1796-1856). A lieutenant in Buchan’s voyage to Spitzbergen, 1818, and Parry’s first voyage to the Arctic, 1819-1820. Sailed as commander of the Blossom by Bering Strait to Point Barrow, 1825-1828, discovering Arctic coast between Icy Cape and Point Barrow. Became president of the Royal Geographical Society, 1856. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Bering Strait; Bib.: White, Place Names, Northern Canada.

Beer, Henry (1835-1886). Born in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Elected to the Assembly, 1870; a member of the ministry, 1872; Speaker of the Assembly, 1877; mayor of Charlottetown, 1885-1886.

Begbie, Sir Matthew Baillie (1819-1894). Born in Edinburgh; educated at Cambridge; and called to the English bar in 1844. Judge of the colony of British Columbia and judge of the Vice-admiralty Court, 1858-1870. He made a notable journey to the Upper Fraser in 1859. Established a reputation among the unruly elements of the Gold Rush for fearlessness and unflinching justice. Chief-justice of British Columbia, 1870-1894, and also judge of the Admiralty district of British Columbia, 1891-1894. Knighted, 1875. Bib.: Begg, History of British Columbia; Nicolls, Sir Matthew Baillie Begbie; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Begg, Alexander. Two historians of this name, or rather these names, have added to our knowledge of the Canadian West. The first was born in Scotland in 1825, came to Canada and engaged in journalism. In 1869 collector of customs at Fort Garry and accompanied William McDougall to Red River that year, and in later years acted as immigration commissioner, first, for Ontario and, later, for British Columbia. Published in 1894 the History of British Columbia. The second was born in Quebec in 1840. In 1867 he became a pioneer in opening up trade between Eastern Canada and Manitoba. Took an active part in the movement to secure representative institutions for the western colony. In 1878 became sergeant-at-arms of the Manitoba Legislature, and from 1878 to 1884 deputy provincial treasurer. Afterwards general immigration agent for the Canadian Pacific railway. Author of The Creation of Manitoba; A Story of Saskatchewan; Ten Years in Winnipeg; History of the North-West. Bib.: For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Bégin, Louis Nazaire (1840-1925). Born in Lévis, P.Q. Professor of ecclesiastical history Laval University, 1868-1884. Bishop of Chicoutimi, 1888-1891. Coadjutor to Cardinal Taschereau, 1891-1898. Archbishop of Quebec, 1898. Cardinal, 1914.

Begon, Michel, Sieur de la Picardiére (1674-1740). Filled the office of inspector-general of marines in France, 1707-1710. In the latter year appointed intendant of Canada, but did not arrive in Quebec until 1712. Returned to France, 1726, and for some years acted as intendant of justice in Normandy. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Belcher, Sir Edward (1799-1877). Entered the navy in 1812. From 1836 to 1842 he was engaged in exploring the western coast of America. Sent out in 1852 as commander of the expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. Between that year and 1854 Melville Island was examined and all the land north and north-west of it, including Prince Patrick Island, on which cairns were found left by McClintock; also Wellington Channel. A party was sent to relieve McClure. The ships were abandoned in the ice about longitude 101°. Bib.: Last of the Arctic Voyages; Smith, Arctic Expeditions.

Belcher, Jonathan (1711-1776). Second son of Governor Belcher of Massachusetts. Educated at Harvard University, Cambridge, and in England; called to the English bar. Appointed chief-justice of Nova Scotia, 1754. President of the Council of Nova Scotia and administrator of the government, 1760. Chiefly instrumental in securing for Nova Scotia a representative Assembly. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Bell, Alexander Graham (1847-1922). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh University and London University; came to Canada in 1870. Professor of physiology in Boston University, 1872. Patented his invention of the telephone, 1876; and also invented the photophone, induction balance, telephone probe, and graphophone. Made his first experiments with the telephone at Brantford, Ont. In 1898 appointed regent of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1909-1910 engaged in aeroplane experiments. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who, 1910; Addresses before Canadian Club of Ottawa, 1910.

Belleau, Sir Narcisse (1808-1894). Born in the city of Quebec and educated there. In 1852 a member of the Legislative Council, and in 1857-1862 Speaker. Mayor of Quebec, 1860, when King Edward VIII, as Prince of Wales, visited Canada, and knighted on the occasion. In 1862 appointed minister of agriculture in the Cartier-Macdonald ministry; and in 1865 premier and receiver-general in a coalition government. Appointed lieutenant-governor of the province of Quebec, 1867; resigned in 1873. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Belle Isle, Strait of. Between Newfoundland and the mainland. Named probably after Belle-Ile-en-Mer, an island in the Atlantic off the coast of France. Jacques Cartier was, so far as is known, the discoverer of the Straits, having sailed through in 1534 and again in 1535 and 1541.

Belleville. A very picturesque town of Ontario on the Bay of Quinté. Founded by Captain Myers, in 1790. Incorporated as a town in 1834, as a city, 1877. There was an open riot in this Loyalist town, in 1849, over the Rebellion Losses Bill.

Bellew, Edward Donald. Captain, 7th Battalion, C.E.F. Awarded the Victoria Cross for most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty. At Keerselaere, in the Ypres Salient, April 24th, 1915, he held up the enemy’s attack with a machine-gun. When his ammunition failed, and the enemy rushed the position, he smashed his machine-gun with a rifle, and, fighting to the last, was taken prisoner.

Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett (1846-1923). Born in London, England. Educated there, and came to Canada, 1866. Founder and first president of the Canadian Society of Artists, Montreal, 1867; director of Alma College, 1881; member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Artists, 1888; director of the Toronto Art School, 1889-1891. President of the Ontario Society of Artists. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Belmont, François Vachon de. Came to Canada from France in 1680, and joined the Seminary of St. Sulpice at Montreal, of which he was superior, 1698-1732. Died the latter year. Left a History of Canada, which was published in the first series of Historical Documents of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec.

Bering, Vitus (1681-1741). Born at Horsens, Denmark. Joined the Russian navy in 1704; and in 1725 sent by Peter the Great to explore the waters east of Kamchatka and examine the American coast. After a three-years’ journey overland, reached the eastern shore of Siberia, built vessels there, and in 1728 followed the coast north to the Arctic, proving that Asia and America were not united. In 1733 set out again, on the long overland journey, hampered with a huge retinue, and it was not until 1741 that his ships were ready at Petropaulovsk. Sailed to the east, reached and explored the American coast, and was wrecked on what was afterwards known as Bering Island, where he died, December 8th, 1741. Bib.: Lauridsen, Vitus Bering; Muller, Voyages from Asia to America; Laut, Vikings of the Pacific; Golder, Bering’s Voyages.

Bering Sea Question. Arose out of a dispute as to the seal-fisheries of Bering Sea. Several Canadian sealers were seized by the United States in 1886, on the plea that these waters constituted a mare clausum, or closed sea. Similar seizures were made in 1887 and 1889. Finally the British and United States governments agreed to submit the question to arbitration. The commission met at Paris in 1893. Lord Hannen and Sir John Thompson represented British interests; the United States was represented by Judge Harlan and Senator Morgan. The other arbitrators were Marquis Visconti Venosta of Italy, Gregora W. Gram of Sweden, and Baron de Courcel of Belgium, who presided. The decision was in favour of Great Britain, and contrary to the claim of the United States to jurisdiction over the waters of Bering Sea and the seals visiting the coasts and islands of Alaska. Regulations were provided for the better protection of the fisheries; and the United States was required to compensate the Canadian sealers for the unlawful seizure of their vessels. Bib.: Report of Bering Sea Commission.

Berkeley, George Cranfield (1753-1818). Entered the navy, 1766; accompanied Cook in survey of coast of Newfoundland and Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1766-1769; and was on the Victory at Ushant, 1778. In 1786 surveyor-general of ordnance, 1786; and vice-admiral on the Halifax station, 1805-1807, during which time occurred the affair between the Chesapeake and the Leopard. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Berlin. See Kitchener.

Berlin Decrees. Issued by Napoleon, November, 1806, to the following effect: The British Isles were in a state of blockade; intercourse with them was prohibited; all British subjects within French authority were to be held as prisoners of war; all British property, private and public, was declared to be prize of war; also merchandise from Britain; merchants whose property had been captured by British cruisers were to be indemnified from the product of such seizures; no British ships were to be admitted into any port of France, or her allies; every vessel eluding this rule was to be confiscated. The object of the decrees was to close the continent against British commerce. The British government retaliated by issuing an order-in-council, refusing to neutrals the right of trading from one hostile port to another. Bib.: Dict. Eng. Hist.; Green, Short History of the English People; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Bermuda. This group of islands in mid-Atlantic was discovered about the beginning of the sixteenth century, and its settlement dates from the early part of the next century. It has for a very long time been associated in many ways with Canada and particularly with Nova Scotia. Bermuda is the first stop in the steamship route between Halifax and the West Indies. Halifax and Bermuda were connected by cable in 1890. From 1825 to 1839 Bermuda ecclesiastically came under the jurisdiction of the Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia. From time to time unofficial proposals have been put forward for the annexation of these islands either to Nova Scotia or to Canada, but the Bermudians have preferred to paddle their own canoe. Bermuda is included in the last trade agreement between Canada and the West Indies. Bib.: Lefroy, Memorials of Bermuda; Ogilvy, Bermuda: past and present; Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies.

Bernard, Hewitt (1825-1893). Entered the Canadian public service, 1858; deputy minister of justice, 1867; resigned, 1876. Acted as confidential secretary to the Quebec Conference on Confederation, 1866, and as secretary to the Confederation delegates in London the following year. In 1872 created I. C.; and the same year made C. M. G. In 1878 appointed assistant commissioner to France and Spain to negotiate commercial treaties. Aide-de-camp to Lord Monck, 1868, and to Lord Stanley, 1888. Bib.: Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald.

Bernier, Joseph Elzéar (1852-). Went to sea, and became master of a brigantine at seventeen. Has given particular study to Arctic exploration, and lectured on subject in Europe and America. Planned a Canadian Polar expedition, but Peary’s discovery put an end to it. Has made several voyages to the Arctic Seas on behalf of Canadian government, for purposes of exploration and to take formal possession for the Dominion of Arctic Islands. See also Arctic Archipelago. Bib.: Report of Dominion Government Expedition to Arctic Islands 1906-1907.

Bernières, Henri de (1635-1700). Born in France. Came to Canada with Laval in 1659. Curé of Quebec, 1660-1687; and grand-vicar of the bishop of Quebec. First superior of the Seminary of Quebec, 1663, holding that position till 1688 and from 1693 to 1697. Bib.: Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites; Gosselin, Henri de Bernières.

Berthier, Alexandre (1638-1709). Born in France. Came to Canada in 1665; and in 1666 commandant at Fort St. Jean. Led expeditions against the Iroquois. In 1672 granted the seigniory of Berthier in Bellechasse County, Quebec. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France.

Bethune, Alexander Neil (1800-1879). Born in Glengarry, Ontario. In 1823 ordained deacon, and in 1824, priest. In 1847 archdeacon of York (Toronto), and in 1867 consecrated coadjutor-bishop of Toronto; succeeded to the bishopric on the death of Bishop Strachan. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland.

Bethune, John (1751-1815). Born in Scotland. Emigrated in his early years to South Carolina, and was chaplain of the loyal militia. Taken prisoner at the battle of Cross Creek, in 1776. Afterwards chaplain to 84th Regiment. In 1786 resided in Montreal; minister of the Presbyterian Church there; afterwards appointed to a mission in Glengarry. He was the first Presbyterian minister in Upper Canada. Died at Williamstown. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Macdonell, Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada.

Biard, Pierre (1565-1622). Came to Port Royal in 1611, with Massé—the first of their order in New France. The relations of the Jesuits with Poutrincourt and his son Biencourt were far from cordial; little or no progress was made with the conversion of the Micmacs; and in 1613 Biard sailed with Massé for Mount Desert, with an expedition sent out by Madame de Guercheville. They had hardly begun the new settlement, when Argall swooped down, seized their ship, plundered their property, and carried Biard and some of his companions prisoners to Virginia. Argall brought the Jesuit back with him to Acadia the same year; the vessel in which he sailed was carried out to sea, and after a series of adventures Biard finally reached France and remained there. Bib.: Biard, Relation; Carayon, Première Mission des Jesuites au Canada; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Bibaud, Michel (1782-1857). An early French-Canadian historian. Educated at the College of St. Raphael. Bib.: Works: Epitres, Satires, Chansons Epigrammes, et autre Pièces de Vers; Histoire du Canada et des Canadiens sous la Domination Anglaise. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.

Bidwell, Marshall Spring (1799-1872). Born in New England. Came to Canada with his father, 1812, and practised law. In 1824-1835 a member of the Upper Canada Assembly; in 1829 elected Speaker of the House, and re-elected, 1835. One of the leaders of the popular party of Upper Canada. His outspoken sympathy with the Rebellion of 1837-1838 resulted in his banishment. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Upper Canadian Rebellion; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Davin, The Irishman in Canada.

Biencourt de Poutrincourt, Charles (1583-1638?). Son of Jean de Biencourt. Accompanied his father to Port Royal in 1605. Returned to France in 1610; made vice-admiral in the seas of New France, and, somewhat unwillingly, brought with him to Acadia in 1611 the Jesuits Biard and Massé. While absent from Port Royal, the fort was attacked and burnt by Argall in 1613. Biencourt partially rebuilt Port Royal, and was still there in 1618. Returned to France some time before 1621, and appointed director of the Royal Academy of Paris, which position he held up to the time of his death. Bib.: Parkman, Pioneers of France; Patterson, Last Days of Charles de Biencourt (R. S. C., 1896).

Biencourt de Poutrincourt, Jean de, Baron de Saint Just (1557-1615). Had won distinction as a soldier in the service of France; and in 1604 sailed with De Monts and Champlain to Acadia. Was so charmed with Port Royal that he determined to make it his home. De Monts made him a grant of the lands about Annapolis Basin, which the king confirmed. Went back to France and brought out his family to the new settlement. Accompanied Champlain in his exploration of the Bay of Fundy and the North Atlantic coast. Jesuit missionaries were sent out to Port Royal, whom Poutrincourt, although a good Roman Catholic, found far from congenial. Their relations became more and more strained, and when Poutrincourt sailed to France in 1613, the Jesuits succeeded in having him thrown into prison. Regained his liberty and returned to Acadia, but found Port Royal in ashes. Returned to France, and fell in the attack on Méry. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime. See also Lescarbot; Champlain; De Monts.

Bienville, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, sieur de (1680-1768). Son of Charles Le Moyne, and brother of Iberville. Joined war party against Schenectady in 1689. Accompanied Iberville to Hudson Bay in 1697, and took part in the capture of Fort Nelson and the defeat of the English fleet. The following year sailed with his brother to the mouth of the Mississippi, where they laid the foundations of the colony of Louisiana. After the death of Iberville, became governor of the colony, and remained there for thirty-five years. Founded the city of New Orleans, and laboured unceasingly to advance the interests of Louisiana. Retired to France, and died in Paris. Bib.: King, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville; Reed, The First Great Canadian; Margry, Découvertes des Français. See also Iberville.

Big Bear. An Indian chief who with his braves took part on the rebel side in the Saskatchewan Rebellion of 1885. Responsible for the massacre at Frog Lake (q.v.). Attacked Fort Pitt and took the Hudson’s Bay Company’s agent and his family prisoners. Managed to elude General Strange, but finally gave himself up to the Mounted Police. Tried but pardoned.

Bigot, François. Born at Bordeaux, January 30th, 1703; son of Louis-Amable Bigot. Through his influence at court, obtained several lucrative offices in New France, which he turned to his own personal advantage. Arrived at Louisbourg in 1739. After the capture of Louisbourg in 1745, returned to France, where serious charges of misappropriating public funds had been brought against him, but his influence at court was still powerful enough to extricate him from this scrape, and to secure him the office of intendant of New France, 1748. Sailed for Quebec and arrived the same year. Able but unscrupulous, he elaborated a system of peculation, by which every branch of the public service was laid under tribute to enrich himself and his creatures, helping thereby to bring about the final loss of the colony. Returned to France after the conquest of Canada; thrown into the Bastille, and released, only to be banished from France. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Billings, Elkanah (1820-1876). Born in township of Gloucester, Ontario. Studied law, called to the bar, 1845, and practised in Ottawa. Appointed paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1856, and in the same year established the Canadian Naturalist. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Ami, Brief Biographical Sketch of Elkanah Billings.

Billopp, Christopher (1737-1827). Commanded a corps of Loyalists in the American Revolution, raised in the vicinity of New York. His extensive property was confiscated. Lord Howe met Franklin, Adams and Rutledge, a Committee of Congress, at Billopp House, in an attempt to adjust the difficulties between the mother country and the colonies. Billopp went to Nova Scotia in 1783, and thence to New Brunswick, where he became a member of the Assembly and of the Council. Died at St. John.

Bishop, William Avery (1894-). Educated at the Royal Military College. Went overseas with 7th Canadian Mounted Rifles as lieutenant. Joined Royal Flying Corps, 1915. Promoted captain, 1917; major, 1917; lieutenant-colonel, 1918. Awarded Military Cross, 1917; D.S.O., 1917; Victoria Cross, 1917; Bar to D.S.O., 1917; Distinguished Flying Cross, 1918; Legion of Honour, 1918; Croix de Guerre with Palm, 1918. Officially credited with seventy-two German machines destroyed. Lectured on aerial warfare, 1919-1920. Bib.: Winged Warfare.

Bishops of New France. François de Laval-Montmorency, 1674-1688; Jean Baptiste de la Croix-Chevrière de Saint-Vallier, 1688-1727; Louis François de Mornay, 1727-1733; Pierre-Herman Dosquet, 1733-1739; François Louis Pourroy de L’Auberivière, 1739-1740; Henri-Marie Dubreuil de Pontbriand, 1741-1760.

Black, John (1817-1879). Born in Scotland. Went to the Red River Settlement as legal adviser to Adam Thorn, recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1839. Subsequently entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company and rose to the position of chief trader. Went back to Scotland, 1852. Spent some time in Australia, and returned to the Red River Settlement as recorder of Rupert’s Land, 1862. Appointed a delegate to Ottawa to present the views of the settlers on the taking over of the country by the Dominion government, 1870. Proceeded to Scotland, where he died. Bib.: Bryce, Manitoba.

Black, John (1818-1882). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to America with his parents and studied for a time at Delaware Academy at Delhi, New York. Came to Canada and completed his theological course at Knox College, Toronto. Ordained to the ministry of the Presbyterian Church and proceeded to the Red River Settlement, 1851. Remained in charge of the church at Kildonan until his death. Bib.: Bryce, John Black: The Apostle of the Red River.

Black, William (1760-1834). Born in England. In 1775 came to Canada and became a Wesleyan Methodist preacher. Founded the Wesleyan Church in Nova Scotia, and became general superintendent of British American Wesleyan missions. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Maclean, William Black.

Black, William. President of the New Brunswick Assembly in 1831. Married a daughter of Christopher Billopp (q.v.). A member of the Legislative Council of New Brunswick and of the Executive Council. Resigned, 1843.

Blackader, Hugh W. (1808-1863). Descended from Loyalist stock. Began to learn the trade of printer at the age of twelve. Acquired an interest in the Acadian Recorder, 1837, and continued to publish the paper until his death. Closely identified with the Reform movement and a strong supporter of Joseph Howe. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Blackfoot Indians. A Western confederacy, of Siksika stock. First described in the journal of Anthony Hendry, 1754-1755, and again by Matthew Cocking, 1772-1773. They were then known to the Crees as the Archithinue. Cocking also gives the following for the five tribes in the Confederacy: Powestic-Athinuewuck or Water-fall Indians; Mithco-Athinuewuck or Bloody Indians; Koskitow-Wathesitock or Black-footed Indians; Pegonow or Muddy-water Indians; and Sassewuck or Woody-country Indians. Their habitat was then, and until comparatively recent times, in the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, on the upper waters of the Saskatchewan. They are now for the most part on reservations in Alberta. Bib.: Petitot, Traditions Indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest; Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales; Hendry Journal (R. S. C., 1908); Cocking Journal (R. S. C., 1909); Franklin, Polar Sea; Catlin, North American Indians; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Blair, Adam Johnston Fergusson (1815-1867). Member of the Legislative Assembly of Canada, 1848-1857; appointed to the Legislative Council, 1860; receiver-general, 1863; member of the Executive Council and provincial secretary, 1863-1864; president of the Executive Council, 1866. Appointed president of the Privy Council and member of the first Dominion Cabinet, 1867. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Blair, Andrew George (1844-1907). Born in Fredericton, New Brunswick. Educated there, and called to the bar, 1866. In 1878 member of the New Brunswick Assembly for York; in 1879 leader of the opposition; and in 1883 premier of the province. In 1896 resigned and became minister of railways and canals in the Dominion government, under Laurier, retiring in 1903. In February, 1904, chairman of the Railway Commission of Canada, resigning in October of the same year. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Who’s Who, 1906.

Blake, Edward (1833-1912). Born in Adelaide, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Ontario, 1859, and became its acknowledged leader. From 1867 to 1872 a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario; and premier, 1871-1872. From 1867 to 1891 member of the Dominion House of Commons. In 1873 a member of Alexander Mackenzie’s Dominion ministry; in 1875-1877 minister of justice and attorney-general; and 1877-1878 president of the Council. In 1874 he made a brilliant and startling speech at Elora advocating the federation of the Empire, the reorganization of the Senate, compulsory voting, extension of the franchise and representation of minorities. In imperial matters his point of view was that Canada should take her share of the burdens of Empire, but only when she had a share in moulding the policies of the Empire. From 1878 to 1887 leader of the Liberal opposition in the House of Commons. Attacked the plans for the Canadian Pacific Railway as a ruinous project. Supported Costigan’s Home Rule proposal in Canadian Parliament. Supported a motion that the death sentence on Louis Riel should be commuted. He was strongly opposed to the policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, advocated by Edward Farrer, and refused to be a candidate in the election of 1891. In 1892 went to Ireland and elected member for South Longford in the British House of Commons; retired, 1907. He was, says O. D. Skelton, the most complex and baffling character in Canadian political history; reserved, moody, too independent and original-minded to wear any party’s harness easily, and too self-absorbed for team-play; in Parliament its most masterful and overwhelming logician. Sir Wilfrid Laurier said of him: “Blake was the most powerful intellectual force in Canadian political history. He had an extraordinary mental organization, a grasp that covered the whole and searched out each smallest detail. He was first and foremost the great advocate, a tremendous dialectician, analysing and cross analysing to the last point, major points and minor points, utterly exhaustive. But he was no mere man of words. He would have proved Canada’s most constructive statesman had he held office. Without any of the lesser arts, he cast a spell over every man in Parliament.” Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who, 1910; Dent, Can. Por., and Last Forty Years; Ewan, Hon. Edward Blake; Taché, Men.

Blake, William Hume (1809-1870). Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and emigrated to Canada in his youth. During the Rebellion of 1837, paymaster of the Royal Foresters. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1838. A member of the Legislative Assembly for East York, 1847, and solicitor-general in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, 1848-1849. Appointed to the Bench, 1849. In the debate on the Rebellion Losses Bill feeling rose so high that John A. Macdonald sent a challenge to Blake, for which he was promptly taken into custody by the sergeant-at-arms. Blake was one of the leading figures in the fight for responsible government in Upper Canada. In 1850 Chancellor of Upper Canada, retiring March, 1862. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por., and Last Forty Years; Read, Lives of the Judges; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Blanshard, Richard (d. 1894). Appointed governor of Vancouver Island by Earl Grey; left England, 1849, and reached Victoria in March of the following year by way of Panama. The Hudson’s Bay Company at that time controlled the situation. The governor, without salary or residence or any staff or effective support of any kind from the home government, but with a will of his own, soon got into open antagonism with the Company, and being powerless to assert his authority, sent in his resignation in 1850, and in 1851 returned to England, leaving a provisional government consisting of Douglas, Cooper and Tod to carry on until the intentions of the home government should be known. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Begg, History of British Columbia.

Bliss, Daniel (1740-1806). Born in Concord, Mass. Educated at Harvard University, graduating in 1774. In 1778 proscribed as a Loyalist, and served with the British army as commissary. At the end of the war, moved to New Brunswick; appointed a member of the provincial Council, and later chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Sabine, Loyalists.

Bliss, John Murray (1771-1834). Born in Massachusetts. Son of Daniel. Came to New Brunswick in 1786; called to the bar; and elected to the House of Assembly for the county of York. Appointed to the bench in 1816; became a member of the king’s Council; and in 1824 administrator of the province for one year. Subsequently a judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Bliss, Jonathan (1742-1822). Born in Springfield, Mass. Educated at Harvard University. A member of the General Court of Massachusetts, 1768. Proscribed in 1778. Emigrated to New Brunswick in 1783. In 1785 elected a member of the provincial Legislature and appointed attorney-general. From 1809 to 1822 chief-justice. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Blowers, Sampson Salter. Born in Boston. Imprisoned as a Loyalist, 1778. On his release went to Halifax. In 1785 became attorney-general and Speaker of the House of Assembly. In 1797 chief-justice of the Supreme Court. Ex-President Adams of the United States paid him a visit in 1840. Died, 1842. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Boer War. See South African War.

Boishébert, Louis Henri Dechamps, Sieur de. Born, 1679. Married the daughter of Ramezay, governor of Montreal and administrator of the Colony, in 1721. In charge at Detroit, 1730, and later placed in charge of Indian affairs throughout Canada. In 1754 he was in command in Acadia, and served there throughout the French and Indian war, 1754-1763. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Bompas, William Carpenter (1853-1906). Born in London, England. Ordained deacon, 1859; priest, 1865; came to Canada latter year and assigned to the Mackenzie River district. In 1874 consecrated bishop of Athabaska. In 1884 transferred to see of Mackenzie River, and in 1891 to that of Selkirk. Author of a number of primers in the Athabaskan and Algonquian languages, as well as in Eskimo. Bib.: Diocese of Mackenzie River; Cody, An Apostle of the North; Machray, Archbishop Machray; Mockridge, Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland. For his native primers, see Pilling, Bibliography of Athabaskan Languages.

Bond, William Bennett (1815-1906). Born in Truro, England. At an early age went to Newfoundland. Removed to Quebec, 1840; the same year admitted deacon, and ordained priest, 1841. For some time engaged as a travelling missionary; assistant to the rector of St. George’s Church, Montreal, 1848; rector 1862; archdeacon of Hochelaga, 1871; dean of Montreal, 1874. In 1879 consecrated bishop of Montreal; in 1901 archbishop; and in 1904 primate of all Canada. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.; Who’s Who, 1905; Mockridge, Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland.

Bonne, Captain de. Born in France, and before coming to Canada served in the regiment of Condé. At the siege of Quebec, 1759, in command of the Quebec and Three Rivers militia, and took part in the battle of the Plains and the battle of Ste. Foy. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec.

Bonnécamps, Joseph Pierre de (1707-1790). Born in France. Entered the Jesuit order, and came to Canada in 1741, when he was appointed instructor of hydrography at the Seminary of Quebec. Held that position until the fall of Quebec in 1759. In 1765-1766 laboured among the French refugees on the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon.

Bonnycastle, Sir Richard Henry (1791-1848). Born in England. Served in Canada in 1812, and engaged in the capture of Fort Castine. During the Rebellion of 1837-1838 commanded the engineers in Canada West, and defended Kingston in 1838. Knighted for distinguished service, 1837. Afterwards commander of engineers in Newfoundland. Bib.: The Canadas in 1841; Canada and the Canadians in 1846; Canada as It was, Is and May Be. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.

Booth, John Rudolphus (1826-1925). Born in Shefford County, Quebec. Started a small shingle mill at Ottawa in 1857, and eventually developed it into an enormous industry. Acquired vast timber limits. A man of indomitable courage and resourcefulness, he met disasters that would have daunted most men without complaint or loss of spirit. When he needed a railway to carry his raw material and the products of his mills, he built it himself. Five hundred miles of his railways were acquired by the Grand Trunk in 1905. He has been described as “the unconquerable pioneer, the nation builder, the man whose courage, genius and imagination tamed the wilderness, reared mighty industries, and did more than any other man of his time to build up his own community.”

Boothia Peninsula. Between McClintock Channel and the Gulf of Boothia, Arctic coast. The Magnetic Pole is on it. Named by John Ross, 1830, after Sir Felix Booth (1775-1850), Sheriff of London, who promoted Ross’ expedition. Explored by Ross, and by Rae in 1847 and 1854. The Gulf, also named after Booth, was visited by Parry in 1822, and later by Ross and Rae. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Borden, Sir Frederick William (1847-1917). Studied medicine and practised for a time. Entered politics and represented King’s County. N.S., 1874-1882 and 1887-1911. Became minister of militia and defence in the Laurier government, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Borden, Sir Robert Laird (1854-). Born in Grand Pré, N.S. Studied law with Sir Robert Weatherbe (q.v.), called to the bar, 1878, and practised at Kentville and Halifax. Appointed Q.C., 1890. In 1896 elected for the city and county of Halifax to the Dominion Parliament, and for Carleton county, 1905. In 1901 succeeded Sir Charles Tupper as leader of the Conservative Party. Prime Minister, 1911. Formed Union government of Conservatives and Liberals, 1917. Member of the Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, 1917 and 1918. One of the Canadian representatives at the Peace Conference in Paris, 1919, and took a very active part in its deliberations, as well as in the framing of the constitution of the League of Nations. A member of the British Economics Committee to suggest policies and formulate machinery for the Supreme Economic Council of the Peace Conference. Returned to Canada, and in September moved the approval of the Treaty of Peace by the Dominion Parliament. Resigned as Prime Minister, 1920, owing to ill health. Since his retirement from public life, he has given a good deal of time to lectures and public addresses on international law and international relations. Bib.: Canadian Constitutional Studies; Morgan, Can. Men; Who’s Who.

Boscawen, Edward (1711-1761). Born in England. Served at Porto Bello, 1739-1740; at Cartagena, 1741; and in the West Indies, 1747. Commanded on the North American station between 1755 and 1757, and in 1758 commander-in-chief of the fleet at the siege of Louisbourg. In 1759 defeated the French in Lagos Bay, and in 1760 commanded the fleet in Quiberon Bay. Bib.: Wood, Logs of the Conquest of Canada; Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Dict. Nat. Biog. See also Louisbourg.

Botsford, Bliss (1813-1890). Born at Sackville, New Brunswick. Educated at King’s College, Fredericton; called to the bar, 1838, and practised at Moncton until 1870. A member of the New Brunswick Assembly, with brief intervals, from 1851 to 1870. In 1865 surveyor-general in the Smith ministry, and a member of the Executive Council, of which he was Speaker from 1867 to 1870. From 1870 to 1890 judge of the County Court. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Boucher de Boucherville, Sir Charles Eugene (1822-1915). Descended from following. Elected to Assembly, 1861. Appointed to Legislative Council of Quebec, 1867, of which he became Speaker. Premier of Quebec, 1874, and again, 1891. Appointed to Senate of Canada, 1879.

Boucher de Grosbois et de Boucherville, Pierre (1622-1717). Came to Canada in 1634 with his father; served as a soldier of the little garrison of Quebec in 1641. Four years later settled at Three Rivers, and having made himself familiar with several Indian languages, employed as interpreter. For nearly a quarter of a century served the town of his adoption in various capacities, civil and military. Filled the office of governor of Three Rivers, with short intervals, from 1652 to 1667. Visited France in 1661-1662, received by Louis XIV, and given a patent of nobility, and on his return to Canada brought out a number of colonists. In 1667 retired to his seigniory of Boucherville. Left a brief but interesting history of New France, written in 1663, while he was still governor of Three Rivers, and published the following year. Bib.: Histoire Véritable et Naturelle des Mœurs et Productions du Pays de la Nouvelle France. Paris, 1664. Reprinted, 1849, 1882, 1883, 1896. The last is in the Trans. of the Royal Society for that year, and was edited by Benjamin Sulte, with biographical and bibliographical notes.

Bouchette, Joseph (1774-1841). Entered the naval service, 1791; in command of the forces on Lake Ontario; and served in the Royal Canadian volunteers. In 1813 on active service; and in 1814-1816 in England, where he published his topographical and geographical description of Canada. Employed as surveyor-general in delimiting the boundary between Canada and the United States, 1817-1818. Bib.: Topographical Description of the Province of Lower Canada; British Dominions in North America.

Bouchette, Robert Shore Milnes. Took sides with Papineau in 1837, was taken prisoner at Moore’s Corners, imprisoned in Montreal, and exiled to Bermuda. His defence of those who took part in the Rebellion will be found in DeCelles’ Papineau, Cartier. Afterward Commissioner of Customs at Ottawa.

Bougainville, Louis Antoine, Comte de (1729-1811). Born in Paris. Educated for his father’s profession of notary; and soon obtained recognition as an advocate in the Parliament of Paris. As a student displayed a remarkable talent for mathematics, and at the age of twenty-two wrote the first volume of a treatise on the Integral Calculus. His mathematical work recognized by the Royal Society in electing him to a fellowship. Joined the army in 1755, and the next year came to Canada as Montcalm’s aide-de-camp. Accompanied him on the Oswego campaign of 1756 and that of Lake George, 1757. Wounded at Ticonderoga the following year. Sent to France to secure aid, where he was promoted colonel but failed in his mission. Returned in April, 1759, bringing news of the approach of the English fleet. Played an important part in the siege of Quebec, commanded the Grenadiers on the Beauport shore, charged with the protection of the country west of Quebec, blamed for failure to reinforce the post at the Foulon (Wolfe’s Cove), held his position at Cap Rouge, while remainder of French army retreated. Wrote an elaborate journal of the campaign, much of which appears to have been incorporated in Montcalm’s Journal, published by Abbé Casgrain. Returned to France in 1761, and, after serving in Germany, joined the navy. From 1766 to 1769 made a voyage around the world; served in the West Indies during the Revolutionary War, and commanded the van of the French fleet in the action off Chesapeake Bay. Retired from active service, 1790; nominated by Napoleon to the Senate, and raised to the nobility. Bib.: Works: Traité du Calcul Intégral; Voyage autour du Monde; Journal de l’Expédition d’Amérique, 1756-1758 in Rapport de l’Archiviste de Québec, 1923-1924; Essai Historique sur les Navigations Anciennes et Modernes (Acad. des Sciences Morales et Pol., Vol. I); Notice Historique sur les Sauvages de l’Amérique Septentrionale (ibid., Vol. III). His letters are printed in Doughty, Siege of Quebec; and his manuscript journals are in the Canadian Archives. See also De Kerallain, La Jeunesse de Bougainville; Michaud, Biog. Univ.; Larousse, Grande Dict. Univ.; Casgrain, Montcalm et Lévis; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Wood, The Fight for Canada; Hart, The Fall of New France, 1755-1760; Casgrain, Wolfe, Montcalm. His portrait is in Doughty’s Siege of Quebec.

Boulton, D’Arcy. Born in England. Came to Canada, 1797, and settled at York, 1803. Called to the bar of Upper Canada by special Act of the Legislature, 1803; solicitor-general, 1805. While on his way to England, 1810, captured by a French privateer, and remained a prisoner in France until 1814. Appointed judge of Assize, 1818. Died in York about 1830. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges; Scadding, Toronto of Old.

Boulton, Henry John. Son of D’Arcy Boulton; born in England, 1790. Studied law and called to the English bar. Emigrated to Canada, 1816, and practised in Upper Canada. In 1818 appointed solicitor-general; attorney-general, 1829; elected to the Assembly for Niagara; removed from attorney-generalship by colonial secretary on account of his independent votes in Assembly, 1833; proceeded to England to vindicate his actions; appointed chief-justice of Newfoundland, 1833; removed from office, 1838, and returned to Canada. Represented town of Niagara in Assembly, 1841-1844, and Norfolk County, 1848-1851. Bib.: Short Sketch of Upper Canada. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.

Boundary Questions. See Alaska; Oregon; North West Angle; Maine; Labrador; Ontario; Manitoba. Bib.: Treaties and Agreements relating to Boundaries between Canada and the United States.

Bouquet, Henry (1719-1766). Born in Switzerland. Served in Holland, Sardinia, and with the Prince of Orange. Was Captain-commandant of the Swiss Guards at the Hague, 1748. Entered the British army; came to America in 1754 with Haldimand and the “Royal Americans;” and held a leading command for several years in the French and Indian wars. Stationed in South Carolina, and in 1758 marched with General Forbes against Fort Pitt. In command there until 1762, and the following year returned with a relief expedition to raise the siege. After a severe battle at Bushy Run he spent the winter of 1763-1764 organizing an expedition into the Indian territory. He penetrated to the Delaware towns and made a treaty of peace. Promoted brigadier, and received the thanks of the King for his services. His letters (Bouquet Papers in the British Museum—copies in Public Archives of Canada), throw interesting sidelights on affairs in the Colonies. Died at Pensacola, Florida. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe and Conspiracy of Pontiac; Canadian Archives Report, 1889. Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Bourassa, Henri (1868-). Born in Montreal, son of Napoleon Bourassa (q.v.), and grandson of Papineau (q.v.). Elected to House of Commons, 1896. Resigned, 1899, as a protest against Canada’s participation in South African War. Re-elected, 1900; 1904. Resigned, 1907; elected Quebec Legislature, 1908; Commons, 1925. He is the leader, and was one of the founders, of the political group known as Nationalists, whose creed may perhaps be given as Canada First, Last and All the Time. Has been for many years the editor of Le Devoir, a Montreal newspaper. Bib.: Grande Bretagne et Canada: Questions Actuelle; La Patriotisme Canadien-Française; The Reciprocity Agreement from a Nationalist Standpoint; The Spectre of Annexation; The Imperial Question; Hier, Aujourd’hui, Demain.

Bourassa, Napoleon (1827-1916). Studied art in Florence and Rome, and on his return to Canada devoted himself to painting and architecture, particularly church architecture. Became vice-president of the Royal Canadian Academy. One of the founders of La Revue Canadienne, and the author of a number of volumes of essays, fiction and books of travel. Bib.: Jacques et Marie; Nos Grand Mères.

Bourdon, Jean (1602-1668). Born in Normandy. Came to Canada, 1634. Engaged for some years as a civil engineer and land surveyor; sent on several embassies to the Iroquois; and in 1657 made a voyage towards Hudson Bay, but prevented by ice from entering the Strait. Mentioned as being at Quebec in 1665.

Bourgeoys, Marguerite (1620-1700). Born at Troyes, in Champagne. Entered the convent of the Congregation of Notre Dame at the age of twenty, and while there decided to devote her life to the colony of New France. Arrived in Quebec in September, 1653, and went on immediately to the new settlement of Montreal. In 1657 opened the first school, in a stable granted her by Maisonneuve. In the same year built a wooden chapel in Montreal. Founded the Congrégation de Notre Dame de Montreal in 1659, and in 1686 built the convent. In 1675, with funds obtained from France, built the church of Bonsecours. Abbé Verreau says of her work as an educationalist: “She taught young women to become what they ought to be, full of moral force, of modesty, of courage in the face of the dangers in the midst of which they lived. If the French Canadians have possessed a certain character for politeness and urbanity, they owe it in a great measure to the work of Marguerite Bourgeoys.” Bib.: Ransonet, Vie de la Sœur Bourgeoys; Faillon, Vie de la Sœur Bourgeoys; Parkman, Jesuits in North America and Old Régime; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime.

Bourget, Ignace (1799-1885). Born at Point Lévis, Quebec. Ordained in 1822; vicar-general of Montreal, 1836; coadjutor-bishop of the diocese, 1837; bishop of Montreal, 1840, and created the first cathedral chapter of that city. Founded several religious orders, colleges, and asylums, among others, in 1864, the institution for the deaf and dumb, Montreal. In 1862 created a Roman count and assistant at the Pontifical Throne. In 1876 archbishop of Martianopolis, in partibus. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Bourinot, Sir John George (1837-1902). Born in Sydney, Nova Scotia. Educated at Trinity University, Toronto. Chief official reporter to the Nova Scotia Assembly, 1861-1867, and in 1880 appointed Clerk of the Dominion House of Commons. For many years honorary secretary of the Royal Society of Canada. Historian and an authority on parliamentary government. Bib.: Works: Canada under British Rule; Federal Government in Canada; How Canada is Governed; Manual of Constitutional History of Canada; Parliamentary Procedure and Government in Canada; Canada; Builders of Nova Scotia. For biog., see Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Bourlamaque, François Charles de, Chevalier de. Born in France. Sent in 1756 with Montcalm to Canada as third in command and colonel of engineers. Accompanied Montcalm on his campaigns of 1756, 1757 and 1758. In charge of Ticonderoga in 1759; evacuated the fort and fell back on Ile-aux-Noix. Joined army of Lévis on march against Quebec, and occupied positions at Lorette and Ste. Foy. Promoted brigadier-general. Wounded in battle of Ste. Foy. “There are,” says Professor Wrong, “not wanting indications that, next to Montcalm himself, the most efficient of the soldiers who served on the French side during the war was Bourlamaque.” Returned to France, and sent as governor to Guadaloupe, where he died in 1794. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Wood, The Fight for Canada; Wrong, The Fall of Canada.

Bourlon Wood, Battle of. September 27th, 1918. This was part of the greater battle for the possession of Cambrai (q.v.). The Canadians fought their way across the Canal du Nord, and started on the dash for Bourlon Wood, which commanded Cambrai, and the possession of which was of vital importance. This the Germans thoroughly understood, and the advance of the Canadians was fiercely contested. Nevertheless before noon the wood was taken, and the 12th Brigade had pushed through and taken the town of Bourlon. Bib.: Canada in the Great World War. See also Cambrai.

Bouteroue, Claude de. Born in France. Came to Canada to act as intendant during the absence of Talon from 1668 to 1670. Returned to France, 1671, and died there, 1680. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France.

Bow River Pass. Through the Bow Range of the Rocky Mountains, from the head waters of Bow River to the Little Fork of the Saskatchewan. Visited by W. D. Wilcox in 1896; Professor Collie in 1897; and Mrs. Schäffer in 1907.

Bowell, Sir Mackenzie (1823-1917). Born in England. Came to Canada with his parents, 1833, and engaged in journalistic work. In 1867 elected to the Dominion House of Commons for North Hastings. In 1878 appointed minister of customs, holding that office until 1891; minister of militia, 1892; and minister of trade and commerce, 1892-1894. In 1894 succeeded Sir John Thompson as premier, and resigned office in 1896. Created a K. C. M. G., 1895. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Bowen, Edward (1780-1866). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada in 1797; studied law and called to the bar in 1803. From 1809 to 1812 represented Sorel in the Assembly; and in the latter year appointed to the Court of King’s Bench. In 1821 became a member of the Legislative Council, and in 1835 elected Speaker. In 1849 chief-justice of the Superior Court for Lower Canada. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.

Boyd, John (1828-1893). Born in Ireland. Emigrated to New Brunswick, and engaged in business at St. John. In 1880 called to the Senate, and on September 22nd, 1893, succeeded Sir S. L. Tilley as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Boyle, Joseph (1867-1923). Born in Toronto. Went to the Klondyke in the early days of the gold rush and made a fortune. When the war broke out in 1914, he organized a machine-gun battery and took it overseas. Served in France, and in 1916 was sent by the War Office to Russia with the military transport commission. The story of his adventures and exploits during the war reads more like an improbable romance than sober history. He was instrumental in saving the Dowager Empress of Russia and members of her family from the Bolsheviks, and in reclaiming the Roumanian crown jewels and other treasures which had been sent to Moscow early in the war. After the armistice he became food controller for Roumania and organized a relief campaign. Colonel Boyle had been decorated with the D.S.O., Legion of Honour, and various Russian and Roumanian orders.

Braddock, Edward (1695-1755). Born in Scotland. Entered the army, 1710, and in 1743 major of the Coldstreams. Served in the expedition to L’Orient, 1746; and under the Prince of Orange in Holland, 1746-1748. Colonel of the 14th Foot at Gibraltar, 1753. In 1755 general and commander-in-chief in British North America; and on July 9th, 1755, commanded the British expedition against Fort Duquesne, where, ambushed by the French and Indians, he was defeated and mortally wounded. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, The Fight with France; Sargent, History of an Expedition against Fort Duquesne, 1755, under Maj.-Gen. Edward Braddock.

Bradstreet, John. Born in England, and came out to the New England colonies. Distinguished himself at the siege of Louisbourg in 1745. In the French and Indian wars he was given command of a force of voyageurs, and with their aid defended Oswego and captured Fort Frontenac, 1758. Promoted colonel in 1762, he was sent to punish the western Indians, but carried out his commission without much success. Became major-general in 1772. Died at Detroit in 1774. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Brandon House. Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1794, on the head waters of the Assiniboine River, about seventeen miles below the present city of Brandon. The buildings were burnt about 1814, and the post abandoned. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Brant, Joseph (1742-1807). A Mohawk Indian chief, whose native name was Thayendanegea. Educated at an Indian school in Connecticut. Visited England in 1775. In the Revolutionary War sided with the British and rendered valuable service. Revisited England after the war. Received by Washington at Philadelphia as an Indian emissary in 1792. The following year he took part in the conference between representatives of the tribes, of the United States and of Canada, with a view to settling the vexed question of the Indians and their lands. Brant’s cautious diplomacy alienated the Indians and created distrust in the mind of Simcoe. On the other hand he had been highly esteemed by Haldimand, on whose recommendation the King had made him Colonel of Indians. Translated the Book of Common Prayer and St. Mark’s Gospel into the Mohawk tongue (London, 1787). Bib.: Stone, Life of Brant; Cruikshank, Joseph Brant in the American Revolution; Eggleston, Brant and Red Jacket; Ke-che-ah-gah-me-qua, Life of Brant; Dent, Can. Por.; Wood, War Chief of the Six Nations.

Brant, Molly. Sister of Joseph Brant. Regarded by the Indians, with whom she had great influence, as the widow of Sir William Johnson (q.v.). Settled in a house at Carleton Island and granted a pension for services in helping to keep her tribesmen loyal.

Brantford. City of Ontario, on the Grand River. Named after Joseph Brant, the Mohawk chieftain. Founded about 1820. Surveyed for a village, 1830; town in 1847; incorporated as a city in 1877.

Bras D’or Lakes. In Cape Breton. Connected with the sea by two channels known as the Great and the Little Bras D’or, and by the St. Peter’s Canal. The name is a modern corruption of the old French name Labrador. Bib.: Bourinot, Cape Breton (R. S. C., 1891).

Brébeuf, Jean de (1593-1649). Born of a noble family of Normandy. Came to Canada, 1625; spent the winter of 1625-1626 among the Algonquins. In the latter year, after a long and difficult journey by way of the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, reached the villages of the Hurons, on Georgian Bay, where he established the first mission. Returned to Quebec in 1629, and in 1634 re-established the Huron mission. In 1640 made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a mission among the intractable Neutral Nation, north of Lake Erie. Returned to the Huron mission, where, in 1649, he was captured by the Iroquois, and burned at the stake with unmentionable cruelties. His skull is preserved in the Hotel-Dieu at Quebec. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Ragueneau, Relation des Hurons, 1649; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Breda, Treaty of. Signed between England and France, 1667. Brought to a close the disastrous war with the Dutch. By its terms Nova Scotia was handed over to France. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions.

Brenton, James. United Empire Loyalist. Brother of Sir Jahleel Brenton, rear-admiral in the Royal Navy. Emigrated from Rhode Island to Halifax during the Revolution. Became a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia and a member of the Executive Council. Appointed judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, 1800. Died at Halifax, 1806. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Brererton, Alexander. Corporal, 8th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. During an attack east of Amiens, August 9th, 1908, when a line of enemy machine-guns suddenly opened fire on his platoon, he sprang forward on his own initiative and reached one of the hostile machine-gun posts, killed two of the crew and forced nine others to surrender. His splendid example inspired his platoon to capture the five remaining posts.

Bressani, Joseph (1612-1672). Born in Rome, and entered the Society of Jesus in 1626. Studied at Rome and Clermont, and sailed for Canada, 1642. After spending a couple of years at Quebec and Three Rivers, he set out for Huronia, but was captured by the Iroquois above Three Rivers and carried off to their villages. There they subjected him to indescribable tortures, but without actually killing him. Finally, the Dutch ransomed him and carried him to New Amsterdam (New York), where he wrote a minute account of his experiences with the Iroquois. He sailed for Holland, the ship was chased by Turkish corsairs, but he reached Europe, had an interview with Pope Innocent X, and finally again sailed for Canada, spent some time among the Hurons, came down twice to Quebec seeking help, and finally in 1650 met Ragueneau with the remnant of the Hurons on his way down the river. The same year he returned to Europe, and died in Florence. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Brest. A legendary town supposed to be somewhere on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This myth originated in 1608, in a little book published in Lyons, France, purporting to describe the writer’s experiences in New France. He describes Brest as “the principal town of the whole country, well provisioned, large and strongly fortified, peopled by about fifty thousand men.” This was, of course, pure romance, but it was taken seriously, and Brest continued to figure even in serious books of history down to the end of the nineteenth century. Bib.: Grenfell, Labrador; Dawson, Brest on the Quebec Labrador (R. S. C., 1905).

Briand, Jean Olivier (1715-1794). Born in France. Ordained priest, 1739; came to Canada, 1741; canon of Quebec Cathedral until 1760. In 1766 appointed bishop of Quebec, and resigned, 1784. Rebuilt the cathedral and palace, destroyed during the siege of Quebec, 1759. He was an energetic and effective administrator, and warmly supported the British cause during the American Revolution and the Invasion of 1775-1776.

Brillant, John. Lieutenant, 22nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. He led his company in an attack east of Meharicourt, August 8th and 9th, 1918, with absolute fearlessness and extraordinary ability and initiative. Although repeatedly wounded, he led his men again and again against enemy positions, including a machine-gun nest where one hundred and fifty men and fifteen machine-guns were captured. In rushing a field gun, he fell unconscious from exhaustion and loss of blood.

Brinley, George. A Boston merchant, who left the country during the Revolution. He was appointed commissary-general of His Majesty’s forces in British North America in 1799. Died in Halifax, 1809. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

British American League. Formed in Montreal in 1849 as a reply to the Annexation Manifesto. Branches organized throughout the country. Largely due to the inspiration of John A. Macdonald. Confederation one of its principal objects; a national fiscal policy another. See Annexation. Bib.: Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Allin, The British North American League, 1849, in Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records, vol. xiii.

British Colonist. Newspaper established in Victoria, British Columbia, by Amor de Cosmos, in 1858. Still survives.

British Columbia. Area, 355,855 square miles. Population by census of 1921, 524,582. Her Majesty Queen Victoria was consulted regarding the naming of the province, and on July 24th, 1858, recommended the name it still bears. Vancouver Island became a crown colony in 1849; ten years later the mainland was organized as a separate colony; in 1866 island and mainland became one; and in 1871 the colony became a province of the Dominion of Canada. The early history of the colony closely identified with that of the Hudson’s Bay Company. One of the outstanding events was the gold rush of 1858-1860, which gave an enormous impetus to the development of the colony, particularly in the matters of civil government and transportation. The entry of the colony into the Dominion brought with it the building of Canada’s first transcontinental railway, the Canadian Pacific. Bib.: Begg, History of British Columbia; Bancroft, History of British Columbia; Macdonald, British Columbia and Vancouver Island; Macfie, Vancouver Island and British Columbia; Morice, The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia; Herring, Among the People of British Columbia; Fitzgerald, The Hudson’s Bay Company and Vancouver Island; Mayne, Four Years in British Columbia; Baillie-Grohman, Sport and Life in Western America and British Columbia; Métin, La Colombie Britannique; Indians of British Columbia (R. S. C., 1888); Langevin, Report on British Columbia; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Scholefield and Howey, British Columbia.

British Columbia Archives. Established, 1898, by R. E. Gosnell, then provincial librarian, and built up by E. O. S. Scholefield, who succeeded him, 1910, as archivist and provincial librarian. Published a number of journals and other documents relating to the early history of British Columbia and the North-West Coast.

British North America Act. The constitution of the Dominion; the Act by which the scattered colonies of British North America were united in one Confederation. Drafted at the Quebec Conference, 1864; discussed and passed in the form of resolutions, in the Legislature of Canada, 1865; put in final shape at the Westminster Conference, 1866; passed by the Imperial Parliament, and proclaimed, 1867. The essential feature of this Act, and that which distinguishes it most clearly from the Constitution of the United States, is the provision that all matters not specifically assigned to the provinces belong to the Dominion, the reverse being the case under the United States Constitution. Broadly speaking, the Act gives the Dominion exclusive jurisdiction over the regulation of trade and commerce, the postal service, customs and inland revenue, military and naval service, navigation and shipping, currency and coinage, banking, weights and measures, patents and copyrights, naturalization, Indians. To the provinces it gives exclusive jurisdiction over direct taxation, management and sale of public lands, timber, provincial prisons, hospitals, asylums, etc., municipal institutions, administration of justice, education. See Confederation: Charlottetown Conference; Quebec Conference; Anti-Confederation Movement. Bib.: Bourinot, Constitution of Canada; Houston, Constitutional Documents; Doutre, Constitution of Canada; Munro, Constitution of Canada; Ashley, Constitutional History of Canada; Gooch, Manual of the Constitution of Canada; Howland, The New Empire; Confederation Debates, 1865; Pope, Confederation Documents; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Kennedy, The Constitution of Canada.

British Whig. Newspaper established at Kingston, Ontario, in 1834, by Dr. E. J. Barker. Still survives, and edited up to a few years ago by the grandson of the founder.

Brock. Sir Isaac (1769-1812). Born in the island of Guernsey. Entered the army at the age of fifteen. In 1791 raised an independent company, gazetted captain, and exchanged into the 49th. Next two years quartered in West Indies. Returned home on sick leave. Major in 49th in 1795, and senior lieutenant-colonel two years later. Took part in expedition to Holland under Sir Ralph Abercromby. Second in command of land forces in Baltic expedition, 1801. Next year ordered to Canada. Revealed promptness and decision in putting down mutiny at Fort George. In command at Fort George, 1803-1804. Recommended establishment of corps of veterans who, after their term of service, should be given land and furnished with farming implements and rations for a certain period, to offset influence of the disloyal element. In 1805 quartered in Quebec, and promoted to colonel. Returned to England on leave, and made a report to the Duke of York, then commander-in-chief, designed to improve the efficiency of the army in Canada. Some of his recommendations afterwards carried out. Returned to Canada, 1806. Succeeded to command of the troops in both provinces. Strengthened the fortifications at Quebec. Ordered the building of vessels for service on the lakes. In 1807 he had the volunteers called out for training. He had faith in the loyalty of the French Canadians. Advocated raising a volunteer corps among the Scottish settlers in Glengarry. In 1808 left Quebec to take command in Montreal. Appointed brigadier-general. He was anxious for service in Europe, but the critical situation in America made it impossible to spare him. He himself felt that war with the United States was inevitable. In 1810 sent to Upper Canada, and made his headquarters at Fort George. Anxious to prevent war between the Indians and the United States. Promoted major-general, 1811. He chafed over being condemned to inactivity in Canada while splendid opportunities of service in Europe were being lost. Appointed president and administrator of Upper Canada during Gore’s absence, 1811. In December, 1811, in view of a probable American invasion, he sent a plan of campaign to Prevost. Recommended an aggressive policy, the taking of Detroit and Michilimackinac, and the strengthening of the naval forces on the lakes. In January, 1812, the long hoped for permission to return to England for service in Spain arrived, but the situation in America was now so grave that he felt compelled to refuse. Carried out a scheme of specially trained flank companies in the militia. Brock’s position embarrassed in 1812 by failure of the home government to send either men or money; also by hostile influences in the Upper Canadian Assembly. He placed Major-General Shaw in command of the communications between Kingston and Cornwall, and himself took charge of the western district Niagara to Amherstburg. Realized importance of securing the support of the Indian tribes. He found himself in need of military supplies of every kind. Also the lack of specie had to be met by the issue of special bank notes. June 26th, he learned of the declaration of war, and immediately made his headquarters at Fort George, detailed his little force along the frontier, and sent instructions to capture Michilimackinac. Issued a tactful general order to the militia, and, despite the overwhelming odds against him, kept up the courage of his men. To Hull’s boastful proclamation he replied: “Our enemies have said that they can subdue the country by a proclamation. It is our part to prove to them that they are sadly mistaken.” And in opening the extra session of the Legislature he said: “By unanimity and despatch in our counsels and vigour in our operations we may teach the enemy this lesson, that a country defended by free men enthusiastically devoted to the cause of their king and constitution, can never be conquered.” Then turning from words to deeds, he proved his words true, provided the free men were led by a great general. Proroguing the Legislature, he proceeded at once to the western frontier, where he met Tecumseh for the first time. Organizing all his available men into three brigades, he decided to attack Detroit, to which Hull had retreated. August 16th, Hull surrendered Detroit, and with it the territory of Michigan. Brock was received in triumph at York, but his success was largely nullified by the ill-advised armistice Prevost had arranged with Dearborn. Brock must sit still while the Americans strengthened their position all along the frontier. He had at least the satisfaction of knowing that the commander-in-chief appreciated his “singular judgment, firmness, skill and courage.” October 13th saw his final triumph, the battle of Queenston Heights. He died as he would have wished, leading his men, as Wolfe had done before him, in the hour of victory. See also War of 1812-1814; Detroit; Queenston Heights. Bib.: Tupper, Life and Correspondence of Sir Isaac Brock; Read, Life of Brock; Nursey, Isaac Brock; Edgar, General Brock; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Marquis, Brock; Eayrs, Brock.

Brockville. Chief town of Leeds County, Ontario, on left bank of St. Lawrence. Formerly known as Elizabethtown. Founded, 1785. Incorporated as a town, 1832. Raided by a detachment of troops from Ogdensburg in 1813. The town assumed its present name in 1812 before the death of Brock.

Brodeur, Louis Philippe (1862-1924). Edited Le Soir, Montreal, 1896. Represented Rouville in House of Commons, 1891-1911; Speaker of the House, 1901-1904; minister of inland revenue, 1904; minister of marine and fisheries, 1906; minister of naval affairs, 1910. Appointed to Supreme Court of Canada, 1911. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1923.

Brooke, Frances (1724-1789). Wife of a garrison chaplain. Accompanied him to Quebec about 1760. Wrote there two novels of garrison life—the first novels written in Canada. Bib.: The History of Lady Julia Mandeville, 1763; History of Emily Montague, 1769.

Broughton, William Robert (1762-1821). Born in England. Entered the navy, 1774, and served on the American station until 1778. In 1792 explored and surveyed the Columbia River for a hundred miles from its mouth; and in 1794 surveyed the north-west coast of America. Served in Lord Gambier’s expedition, 1809; at Mauritius, 1810, and at Java, 1811. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Brouillan, De. Born in France. Governor of Placentia, Newfoundland, 1690. Made a chevalier of St. Louis, 1698. In 1701 commandant in Acadia, and governor of that colony, 1702-1705. Died the latter year. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France.

Brown, George (1818-1880). Born at Alloa, Scotland. From his father he inherited his Liberalism and his hatred of slavery. Came to America with his father in 1838, and was associated with him in journalism in New York. In 1843 removed to Toronto, where he established the Banner, afterwards to be better known as the Globe. In its columns he began the fight for responsible government that occupied most of his energies for many years. In its first number he said: “The battle which the Reformers of Canada will fight is not the battle of a party, but the battle of constitutional right against the undue interference of executive power.” Joined Baldwin and others in the Toronto Reform Association, 1844. Supported Elgin in the matter of the Rebellion Losses Bill, 1849. Defeated in Haldimand by William Lyon Mackenzie. He had supported Baldwin, but when Hincks came into power he took issue with the government on the question of the secularization of the clergy reserves. Elected for Kent in 1851, on a platform that called for the separation of Church and State, secularization of the clergy reserves, establishment of a system of national schools, the extension of the franchise, and the improvement of transportation facilities. Rose to a commanding position in the Assembly by virtue of his industry and force of character. He rapidly became the apostle of Upper Canada as against Lower Canada. In 1854 defeated Malcolm Cameron in Lambton. Formed an alliance with the Quebec Rouges. Advocated representation by population. Elected for Toronto in 1857. The following year formed an administration. Defeated in the house, the government at once resigned. A strong advocate of Confederation. Defeated in East Toronto in 1861. Re-elected, and proposed a federation scheme of government either for Canada alone, or for all the British North American provinces. Became a member of the coalition government in 1864. Took an active part in the negotiations looking toward Confederation. Opposed an elective Senate. He was well satisfied with the results of the Quebec Conference. Became a convert to the Intercolonial Railway scheme. Made a strong speech in the legislature in support of Confederation. Supported the renewal of the reciprocity treaty, but objected to the way it had been handled, and resigned from ministry 1865. Urged the acquisition of the North West Territories from the Hudson’s Bay Company. In a public speech he said: “It is my fervent aspiration and belief that some here to-night may live to see the day when the British American flag shall proudly wave from Labrador to Vancouver Island and from our own Niagara to the shores of Hudson Bay.” In 1874 sent to Washington by the Mackenzie government to negotiate a reciprocity treaty. A draft treaty was prepared, but was thrown out by the United States Senate. Opposed the programme of the Canada First party the same year. He had been appointed to the Senate in 1873, but about this time decided to retire from public life and devote his energies entirely to journalism. Shot by George Bennett, an employee of the Globe who had been discharged for intemperance. Died May 10th, 1880. He was, says John Lewis, “true to the principles that were the standards of his political conduct, to government by the people, to free institutions, to religious liberty and equality, to the unity and progress of the Confederation of which he was one of the builders.” See also Responsible Government; Confederation; Reciprocity; Globe. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown; Mackenzie, Life and Speeches of the Hon. George Brown; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Brown, Harry. Private, 10th Battalion, C. E. F. Won the Victoria Cross at Hill 70, near Loos, August 16th, 1917. He saved the loss of an important position by carrying a message back through an intense barrage to the support lines. He was so badly wounded that he died in the dressing station a few hours later.

Brown, John Gordon (1827-1896). Brother of George Brown. Born in Scotland. Educated in Edinburgh and New York. In 1844 engaged on the Toronto Globe; in 1851 editor, and in 1880 managing director. In 1882 retired from the Globe; appointed registrar of the Surrogate Court of Toronto, 1883. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Brown, Peter (1784-1863). Born in Scotland. Emigrated to New York in 1838; was owner and editor of the British Chronicle. Removed to Toronto, 1843, and founded the Banner, a Free-Church Presbyterian organ. In 1844 with his son, George Brown, established the Toronto Globe, and contributed to it for some years. Both before and after his emigration to America he was an enthusiastic supporter of the anti-slavery movement. Bib.: The Fame and Glory of England Vindicated. For biog. see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por.

Brown, Thomas Storrow. Associated with Papineau in the insurrection in Lower Canada. Led the Patriotes at St. Charles. Charged with cowardice, he defended his action in a letter to Wolfred Nelson (q.v.). Escaped to United States. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada; DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

Brûlé, Etienne. A famous coureur de bois who accompanied Champlain on his exploration of the Ottawa, in 1615, and subsequently made extensive explorations in the country of the Hurons and the Iroquois (1615-1618). He reached the Susquehanna river; coasted along the north shore of Lake Huron; and there is evidence that a few years later he reached Lake Superior. In 1628 he came down to Quebec with a party of Hurons, and, for some unexplained reason, deserted to the English and piloted Kirke’s vessels up the St. Lawrence to Quebec. Treacherously murdered near the present town of Penetanguishene by a party of Hurons in 1632. Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Sagard, Voyage du Pays des Hurons; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Butterfield, History of Brûlé’s Discoveries and Explorations; Sulte, Etienne Brûlé (R. S. C., 1907); Tremblay, Sépulture d’Etienne Brûlé (R. S. C., 1915).

Bruyas, James. Born in France. Came to Canada in 1666, and was sent as a missionary to the Iroquois. Remained there as Superior of the missions until 1679, and at Caughnawaga until 1691. In 1693 he succeeded Dablon as General Superior, and remained in that office until 1699. His good judgment and wide knowledge of the Iroquois made him invaluable to Frontenac and succeeding governors in their relations with the Indians. He was sent to Boston as an envoy of the governor of Quebec to arrange details of peace after the treaty of Ryswick; and in 1700 to the Iroquois to make a treaty. Died at Quebec in 1712. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Bryce, George (1844-). Born at Mount Pleasant near Brantford, Ontario. Educated at Toronto University and Knox College. Took part in the skirmish at Ridgeway during the Fenian Raids. In 1871 removed to Manitoba and organized Manitoba College. Professor of English literature in Manitoba College, 1871-1909; and head of the faculty of science and lecturer in biology in Manitoba University, 1891-1904. Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, 1902-1903. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1909-1910. Bib.: Works: Manitoba; Short History of the Canadian People; Apostle of Red River; Hudson’s Bay Company; Romantic Settlement of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists; Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.; Canadian Who’s Who.

Brymner, Douglas (1823-1902). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1857. For some time editor of the Presbyterian, and associate editor of the Montreal Daily Herald. In 1872 appointed Dominion Archivist, and held the position up to the time of his death, laying the foundations of the present splendid collection of manuscript material bearing on the history of Canada. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Buade, Louis de. See Frontenac.

Buchanan, Isaac (1810-1883). Born in Scotland. In 1833 emigrated to Canada and entered into business life. A Moderate Reformer. Strongly opposed the Rebellion of 1837. Elected for York to the first Parliament of Canada. Severely attacked Robert Baldwin in his Five Letters against the Baldwin Faction. In 1864 appointed president of the Council in the Taché-Macdonald ministry, retiring the same year. From 1878 to 1883 a Dominion arbitrator. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Buck, William (1751-1832). Born at Hebron, Connecticut. A United Empire Loyalist. Early in the Revolutionary War made his way through the wilderness to Montreal, where he was given an ensign’s commission in the King’s Rangers. Served seven years. Twice taken prisoner and escaped. After the war removed to Upper Canada and settled on the site of Brockville, receiving a grant from the Crown. His was the first house in what became the town of Brockville. In 1800 elected to represent his county in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Bib.: McDonald, The United Empire Loyalists of the old Johnstown District (Ont. Hist. Soc. Papers, xii).

Bulkeley, Richard. Came to Nova Scotia with Governor Cornwallis, 1749. Appointed secretary of the province, 1759, and continued to hold office under thirteen successive governors, until 1793. Member of the Council of Nova Scotia, 1759. Administrator of Nova Scotia, 1791; judge of the Admiralty Court; brigadier-general of militia. Died, 1800. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Buller, Charles (1806-1848). Born in Calcutta. Entered Parliament in 1830; and called to the bar, 1831. In 1838 secretary to Lord Durham and accompanied him on his momentous mission to Canada. He shared Durham’s views on colonial self-government, and is believed to have made material contributions to Durham’s Report. Advocated responsible government for Canada in the British Parliament. In 1846 judge advocate-general, and in 1847 chief poor law commissioner. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Strachey, Charles Buller; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada.

Bulletin des Recherches Historiques. Edited by Pierre-Georges Roy, Quebec. A monthly review, established 1895. In 1923 it became the official organ of the Bureau of Archives of the province of Quebec.

Bulyea, George Headley Vickers. Born in Gagetown, New Brunswick. Educated at University of New Brunswick. For a time principal of the Sunbury County Grammar School. Removed to Qu’Appelle, North-West Territories, 1883. Elected to the North-West-Council, 1894; special representative to the Yukon, 1896; commissioner of agriculture and public works in the Territorial government; appointed first lieutenant-governor of Alberta, 1905; reappointed in 1910. Bib.: Canadian Who’s Who.

Bureau des Archives de la Province de Quebec. Established, 1920. Pierre-Georges Roy (q.v.) first archivist. In addition to an annual report containing printed documents, facsimiles, calendars, etc., the Bureau is bringing out a general index to the Bulletin des Recherches Historiques, 1895-1925.

Burgoyne, John (1723-1792). Born in England. Educated at Westminster, and entered the army in 1740. In 1775 served in New England; second in command, 1776, and lieutenant-general, 1777. In the latter year succeeded General Carleton as commander-in-chief of the forces in Canada. After several successful engagements with the Americans, hopelessly defeated at Saratoga in October, 1777. In 1782 commander-in-chief in Ireland. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Burlington Bay Canal. An open cut across a sand-bar at the entrance of Burlington Bay, designed to enable vessels to reach the city of Hamilton from the lake. It was authorized by the Legislature, 1823, and completed, 1832. Enlarged, 1841.

Burns, Robert Easton (1805-1863). Born in Niagara. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1827. Practised at Niagara, St. Catharines, and Hamilton. Appointed judge of the Niagara District, 1836; judge of the Home District, 1844; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1850. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

Burpee, Isaac (1825-1885). Born at Sheffield, New Brunswick, of Huguenot and Puritan stock; his great-grandfather settled in New Brunswick in 1763. He moved to St. John, 1848. Represented City of St. John in Dominion Parliament, 1872-1885; minister of customs in the Mackenzie government, 1873-1878. Died in New York. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.

Burr, Aaron (1756-1836). Born in New Jersey. In 1775 served in the Revolutionary army, and accompanied Arnold on his expedition to Quebec. In 1791 elected to the Senate, and in 1801 vice-president of the United States. In 1804 killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Jenkinson, Aaron Burr; Todd, The True Aaron Burr.

Burstall, Sir Henry Edward (1870-). Born at Quebec. Educated Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, and the Royal Military College. Served with First Contingent in South Africa, 1899-1900, and with South African Constabulary, 1901-1904, including actions at Paardeberg, Poplar Grove, Driefontein, etc. Appointed to command of Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, 1907; and of Royal Canadian Artillery, 1911; Inspector of Horse, Field and Heavy Artillery, 1911; command of Royal School of Artillery, Quebec, 1911. Went overseas in 1914 as officer commanding Division Artillery with rank of lieutenant-colonel. Promoted, brigadier-general, 1915, and major-general, 1916. Commanded Canadian artillery at Ypres, Festubert and Givenchy, and later battles. Commanded a division in 1917, and in the battle of Amiens had command of the extreme left.

Burton, Sir Francis. Lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada, and acting governor during the absence of Dalhousie in 1825. He attempted to meet the views of the Assembly as to the budget, but his action was repudiated by Dalhousie. Bib.: DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

Burton, Sir George William. Born at Sandwich, England, 1818; son of Admiral George Guy Burton. Came to Canada, 1836. Practised law in Hamilton and for many years city solicitor. In 1874 appointed a judge of the Court of Appeals of Ontario, and in 1897 made chief-justice. Knighted, 1897. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Burton, Napier Christie (1759-1835). United Empire Loyalist. Served through the Revolutionary War. Taken prisoner in the siege of Yorktown. After the war promoted to lieutenant-colonel and served in Flanders. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1799. Represented Beverley in the British Parliament to 1806. Promoted lieutenant-general, 1805, and general, 1814. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Burton, Ralph. Served in the siege of Quebec. On July 29th, 1759, in command of thirteen companies of Grenadiers, and on September 2nd wounded at the battle of Montmorency. Commanded the reserve in the battle of the Plains. Wolfe’s last order was to Burton, to seize the bridge over the St. Charles and cut off the retreat. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec after the capture of the city. He took part in the battle of Ste. Foy the following year. Served with his regiment in the siege of Havana. Returned to Canada in 1763. Governor of Three Rivers, and later of Montreal. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Wood, The Fight for Canada.

Bury, William Coutts Keppel, Viscount (1832-1894). Private secretary to Lord John Russell, 1850. Superintendent-general for Indian Affairs for Canada, 1854-1856. In 1855 negotiated a treaty with the Indians for the purpose of opening the Saugeen reserve to settlement. Left his numerous family names tagged to townships, villages and natural features of the district. Succeeded his father as seventh Earl of Albemarle. Under-secretary of war, 1887-1880. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Buteux, Jacques (1600-1652). Born in France. In 1634 sent as a missionary to Canada, and arrived at the new settlement of Three Rivers in September. Worked among the Indians there for several years. Superior of the missions from 1639 to 1642, and from 1647 to 1652. Bib.: Charlevoix, History of New France; Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Butler, John. Born in Connecticut. In 1759 served under Sir William Johnson in the Niagara campaign, and in 1760 in the Montreal expedition. During the Revolution served on the British side in New York and in Canada as commander of Butler’s Rangers. He has been charged with gross cruelty, particularly in the conduct of the raid on Wyoming. The evidence seems to show that there was cruelty on both sides. After the war he took up land on the Niagara peninsula. Appointed superintendent of Indian affairs. Died in Niagara in 1794. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; McIlwraith, Haldimand; Sabine, Loyalists.

Button, Sir Thomas. Sailed from England for Hudson Bay in April, 1612. His letter of instructions from Henry, Prince of Wales, contained minute directions as to the best means of making the North-West Passage, and King James gave him a Letter of Credence addressed to the Emperor of Japan, so confident was the expectation that Button would find the long-sought passage. Sailing through Hudson Straits, he crossed the Bay and sailed down its western coast to the mouth of the Nelson river, where he wintered. In the spring of 1613 he turned north again and followed the coast up to Chesterfield Inlet and almost to Wager Bay. He then returned through the Straits and sailed home. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

By, John (1781-1836). Born in England. Entered the army in 1799. In 1802 came to Canada; returned to England in 1811; and served in the Peninsular War. In 1826 again came to Canada, and engaged on important military and engineering works until 1832. Constructed the Rideau Canal from Bytown (Ottawa) to Kingston, the first steamer passing through in the spring of 1832. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, Trans., vol. 1.

Byles, Mather (1706-1788). Born in Boston. Graduated from Harvard, 1725. Denounced as a Loyalist in 1777. Imprisoned and sentenced to banishment, but the sentence was never carried out. He was a scholar and a famous wit. His son of the same names (1734-1814) went to Halifax in 1776, settled in St. John, N.B., became first rector of Trinity Church, and chaplain of the province, and died in St. John. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Bylot, Robert. Sailed with Henry Hudson on the Discovery in 1610, and returned with the mutineers to England. Took part in two later voyages to the north-west before he sailed with Baffin (q.v.) to Hudson Strait in 1615. Bib.: Rundall, Voyages Toward the North-West.

Byng of Vimy, Baron (1862-). Saw active service in the Soudan, South Africa and Egypt. Commanded Third Division in France, Ninth Corps at the Dardanelles, the Canadian Corps in France, and finally the Third British Army. Promoted general. Appointed governor-general of Canada, 1921. He had won the respect and admiration of the Canadian troops in France, and his appointment was universally popular in Canada. In a public address he expressed his views as to the attitude of a governor-general: “Loyalty to the King, political impartiality, and unbounded faith in whatever government may be in power, are the three qualities I am bound to exemplify in carrying out the duties of governor-general.”

Bytown. Former name of the city of Ottawa. In 1858 the rival towns of Quebec, Montreal, Kingston and Toronto all clamoring for the right to be the capital of Canada, the matter was referred to the Queen who, on the recommendation of Sir Edmund Head, passed them all by and chose Bytown. See also Ottawa. Bib.: Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, Trans., vol. 1.

Cables. The first submarine cables in America were those laid between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, 1851; and between Cape Breton and Newfoundland, 1856. Newfoundland was connected with Ireland by cable in 1858. In 1902 the Pacific Cable was laid, between Canada and New Zealand and Australia. See also Gisborne; Fleming. Bib.: Bright, Submarine Telegraphs; Johnson, The All Red Line.

Cabot, John. Probably a native of Genoa. Became a citizen of Venice, March 28th, 1476, and at that time had been a resident of the city for fifteen years. Went to England, and in 1497, under the direct authority of Henry VII, sailed to the westward on a voyage of discovery. Landed on the shores of America, but his exact landfall has been a moot point. It is now generally believed that it was the easternmost cape of Cape Breton. The following year sailed again, but there is no record that he ever returned from this second voyage. Bib.: Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot; Dawson, The Voyages of the Cabots (R. S. C., 1894, 1896, 1897); Deane, Voyages of the Cabots, in Winsor, Nar. & Cr. Hist. of America, vol. 3; Harrisse, John Cabot, the Discoverer of North America; Weare, Cabot’s Discovery of North America; Ober, John and Sebastian Cabot.

Cabot, Sebastian (1477?-1557?). Son of John Cabot. His share in the discovery of North America has been the subject of much controversy. From having once been regarded as the sole discoverer, it is now considered doubtful that he had anything to do with the voyages of 1497 and 1498. He was in the service of Spain, and also of England, receiving from Edward VI the title of Grand Pilot of England. Bib.: Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot; Nicholls, Life of Sebastian Cabot; Tarducci, John and Sebastian Cabot. These are favourable to Sebastian’s claims. See references under preceding entry for the other side of the controversy.

Cadet, Joseph Michel. Began life as a butcher; won the confidence of the intendant Bigot, and as commissary-general seconded him in his infamous schemes for plundering the colony. See Bigot.

Cadieux. A French coureur de bois, whose tragic death forms the subject of one of the popular chansons of Quebec. His reputed grave is at the foot of Grand Calumet Island, on the Ottawa. Bib.: Le Moine, Legends of the St. Lawrence; Bourinot, The Ottawa Valley in the Canadian Monthly, January, 1875; Gagnon, Chansons Populaires.

Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe. Came to Canada as an officer of the Carignan Regiment. Settled in Acadia. Losing his property there by English incursions, he moved to Quebec, 1691, and Frontenac gave him an appointment in the colonial troops. In 1694 appointed to the command of the post of Michilimackinac. In 1701 built a fort at Detroit, and remained in command there until 1710. From 1712-1715 governor of Louisiana. Subsequently appointed governor of Castel Sarassin, in Gascony, his native province. Died there October 16th, 1730. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Cadillac Papers (Mich. Hist. Coll., vol. 33); Wis. Hist. Coll., xvi; Burton, Sketch of the Life of Cadillac; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Docs. relating to Col. Hist. of New York, 1855.

Cadotte, Jean-Baptiste. Pioneer fur trader in the west. When the French abandoned their fort at Sault Ste. Marie, Cadotte remained behind with his native wife and family. Alexander Henry found him there in 1762; in charge of the fort when Carver visited the place five years later. Died there in 1803. Bib.: Henry, Travels and Adventures in Canada; Carver, Travels through the Interior Parts of North America; Morice, Dict.; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Caën, Emery de. Nephew of Guillaume. Champlain left him in command of the little colony of Canada when he returned to France in 1624. Although a Calvinist, he was friendly to the Jesuits. In 1629, on his way down the river, his vessel was captured by Kirke. He returned to France, and came back to Canada in 1632 with an order from King Charles to Kirke to hand Quebec over to the French. Bib.: Douglas, Quebec in Seventeenth Century; Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Caën, Guillaume de. A Huguenot. Head of the trading company organized by Montmorency. Came out to Canada, where difficulties at once arose with Pont-Gravé and the old Company of Rouen and St. Malo, which Champlain managed to smooth over. De Caën made several voyages to France and back to Canada with men and supplies. In 1625 he brought out with him the Jesuits Lalement, Brébeuf and Massé. Kirke seized his goods in 1629, which led to a long and bitter controversy in which the French and English courts were involved. Bib.: Douglas, Quebec in Seventeenth Century; Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Cahokia. A French settlement on the upper Mississippi, opposite St. Louis and above Fort Chartres. A road connected it with Kaskaskia some miles lower down. It was the scene of Pontiac’s murder in 1769. Parkman described it as it still existed in his day. Bib.: Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac.

Cairns, Hugh. Sergeant, 46th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. On the 1st of November, 1918, before Valenciennes, when a machine gun opened on his platoon, he seized a Lewis gun and single-handed, in the face of direct fire, rushed the enemy post, disposed of the crew and captured the gun. Later he attacked another post, capturing eighteen of the enemy and two guns, and led a small party to outflank a nest of machine and field guns, capturing all the guns and about fifty men. Finally he was rushed by about twenty enemy, and, having already been severely wounded, collapsed from weakness and loss of blood. He died the following day.

Caldwell, Henry. Commanded British militia in Quebec during siege by Montgomery. His home burnt by Arnold. Bib.: Lemoine, The Hon. Henry Caldwell, L.C., at Quebec.

Caldwell, Sir John, Bt. Eldest son of Sir James Caldwell, the third baronet. Succeeded his father, 1784. Appointed receiver-general of Lower Canada, and found to have misappropriated the public funds. Made restoration afterwards of the greater part of the amount. Died in England, 1830. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Calgary. A city of Alberta. Founded originally as a post of the North-West Mounted Police in 1875, and named Fort Brisebois; name changed to Fort Calgary following year. Incorporated as a town, 1884.

Callières, Louis-Hector de (1646?-1703). Born at Cherbourg, son of Jacques de Callières, governor of Cherbourg. Entered the army, and became captain of the regiment of Navarre. In 1684 came to Canada as governor of Montreal; and in 1699 appointed governor-general of the colony. Author of a memorandum on the French claims in Hudson Bay. Commanded regular troops in attack on the Iroquois, 1687. Sent to France to represent situation of the colony. In 1690 he led eight hundred men from Montreal to Quebec to help defend Quebec from the attack of Phipps. Commanded the vanguard in the attack on the Onondagas in 1696. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Sulte, La Famille de Callières (R. S. C, 1890); Parkman, Half Century of Conflict.

Cambrai, Battle of. September 27th to October 9th, 1918. It had been determined that the Third and Fourth Armies were to make a concerted attack on the Canal du Nord and Cambrai, and the Canadians had the honour of being selected as the “spearhead.” Their business was to fight their way across the canal and capture Bourlon Wood (q.v.). Having achieved that, as well as surmounting the formidable obstacle of the Canal du Nord, the next few days were spent in paving the way for the final assault on Cambrai. Five days’ fighting had resulted for the Canadians in the gain of much valuable ground, as well as seven thousand prisoners and over two hundred guns. After a short rest, they resumed the attack, and at one o’clock on the morning of the ninth had crossed the Scheldt, pressed on through some of the outlying villages, and “by the full dawn they had cleared the enemy out of the big triangle, twenty miles square, formed by the Sensée and the Scheldt.” The Germans had evacuated the city during the night. Canadian infantry and engineers took possession of the place, and were in time to prevent its destruction by fire. Bib.: Canada in the Great World War.

Cameron, David. Brought up as a draper; drifted to the West Indies, where he had charge of an estate; and thence to New Caledonia. In 1852 superintendent of the coal mines at Nanaimo. Nominated by Douglas as chief-justice of Vancouver Island, 1853, and the appointment confirmed by the colonial office the same year. Succeeded by Needham in 1858. Retired from the bench, 1864. Died at Belmont, Vancouver Island, 1872. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Cameron, Sir Douglas Colin (1854-1921). Represented Fort William in Ontario Legislature, 1902-1905. Unsuccessful candidate for Winnipeg, Dominion election, 1908. Lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, 1911. Bib.: Who’s Who.

Cameron, Duncan. Son of a United Empire Loyalist; born at Schenectady, on the Mohawk. His father brought the family to Canada, and settled in Glengarry. The son entered the service of the North West Company in 1786, and was for many years in charge of the Nipigon district. In 1814 sent to Red River to oppose Selkirk’s plans, and succeeded in winning some of the colonists over to the side of the Nor’Westers. Took them to Upper Canada. In 1816, before the Seven Oaks affair, seized by Colin Robertson of the Hudson’s Bay Company, carried to York Factory, and sent to England, where he was promptly released. Returned to Canada, settled at Williamstown, and represented Glengarry from 1820 to 1824 in the Assembly of Upper Canada. Bib.: Bryce, Manitoba and Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. Cameron’s Sketch of the Customs, etc., of the Natives in the Nipigon Country, and Nipigon Journal, 1804-1805, are in Masson, vol. 2.

Cameron, John Hillyard (1817-1876). Solicitor-general, Upper Canada, 1846-1848; represented Cornwall in Legislative Assembly, 1846-1847 and 1848-1851; Toronto, 1854; Peel, 1861-1866. Opposed Confederation. Proposed an appeal to the people. Represented Peel in first Dominion Parliament, 1867-1872; Cornwall, 1872-1874; and 1874-1876. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Cameron, Malcolm (1808-1876). Elected to Assembly of Upper Canada for Lanark, 1836. A persistent opponent of Sir F. B. Head and the Family Compact. Appointed inspector of revenue, under Bagot. Held various offices in the LaFontaine-Baldwin and Hincks administrations. One of the Clear Grits. President of the Executive Council, 1851. Opposed George Brown in Kent and Lambton. Minister of agriculture, and in 1853 postmaster-general. He advocated complete secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and opposed Catholic Separate Schools. In 1863 resigned his seat to accept appointment as Queen’s Printer. Represented South Lanark in Dominion House, 1874-1876. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Cameron, Sir Matthew Crooks (1822-1887). Born in Dundas, Ontario. Educated at the Home District Grammar School, Toronto, and at Upper Canada College; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1849. Sat in the Assembly for North Ontario, 1861-1863 and 1864-1867. Defeated in North Ontario for election to the House of Commons, 1867. Elected to the Ontario Assembly for East Toronto; provincial secretary, 1867-1871; commissioner of crown lands, 1871-1872; leader of the opposition in the Assembly, 1872-1876. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1878; chief-justice of the Common Pleas Division of the High Court of Justice, 1884. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Camosun. See Victoria.

Campbell, Sir Alexander (1821-1892). Studied law under John A. Macdonald, with whom he later formed a partnership; and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1843. Elected to the Legislative Council, 1858; and Speaker, 1863. Commissioner of crown lands, 1864-1866. A delegate to the Charlottetown Conference, and the Quebec Conference. Postmaster-general in first Dominion ministry, 1867-1873. In 1870 sent to England to confer with the Imperial government as to the proposed withdrawal of troops from Canada, the Fenian Raids, and other matters. In 1872 attempted to merge the two rival Canadian Pacific Railway syndicates. Minister of the interior, 1873; receiver-general, 1878-1879; postmaster-general, 1879-1880, 1880-1881, 1885-1887; minister of militia and defence, 1880; minister of justice, 1881-1885. In 1887 appointed lieutenant-governor of Ontario, an office which he retained up to the time of his death. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Campbell, Sir Archibald (1769-1843). Born in Scotland. Entered the army, 1787. Served throughout the Peninsular War, 1808-1814; in 1821 commanded a regiment in India; conducted the Burmese War; and 1826-1829, governor of British Burmah. From 1831 to 1837 lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick. Came into conflict with the Assembly over the questions of crown lands, revenues and the Civil List bill. Dissolved the House in 1834. Opposed to political reform. Resigned, 1836. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Campbell, Sir Colin (1776-1847). Served in India, 1801-1804, and afterwards in Denmark and the Peninsula; attached to Wellington’s staff at the battle of Waterloo; promoted major-general, 1825; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1834-1840. He managed to antagonize the popular party in the Assembly, and his removal was asked for at the instance of Joseph Howe. Governor of Ceylon, 1839-1847. Bib.: Letters and Speeches. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Chisholm, Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia. See also Joseph Howe.

Campbell, Frederick William. Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. During the action at Givenchy, June 15th, 1915, he took two machine-guns over the parapet, arrived at the German first line with one gun, and held his position there under very heavy rifle, machine-gun and bomb fire, notwithstanding the fact that almost the whole of his detachment had been killed or wounded. Later he moved his gun forward to an exposed position and, by firing about one thousand rounds, succeeded in holding back the enemy’s counter-attack. Subsequently died from wounds.

Campbell, Robert (1808-1894). A Perthshire Highlander by birth, he entered the service of Hudson’s Bay Company, 1832, and was sent to the Mackenzie River district, 1834. For the next eighteen years engaged in exploring the upper waters of the Liard and Yukon Rivers, and establishing the fur trade in this region. Built Fort Dease in 1838, and made his way to the Pacific by way of the Stikine. In 1842 he ascended the north branch of the Liard to Lake Frances, crossed the divide and reached the headwaters of the Pelly, a tributary of the Yukon. In 1843 he reached the junction of the Pelly and the Lewes, and five years later he built Fort Yukon at the forks, and descended the Yukon to the mouth of the Porcupine. In 1852 made a remarkable journey on snowshoes, from Fort Simpson to Crow-wing, Minnesota, about three thousand miles. Became a chief factor, 1867, and retired from the service of the Company, 1871. Bib.: Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon River. For biog., see Bryce, Sketch of the Life and Discoveries of Robert Campbell and Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Campbell, Stewart. Leader of the Anti-Confederation party in Nova Scotia. Elected to the House of Commons for Guysborough in 1867. Afterwards supported Confederation. Bib.: Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Campbell, Lord William. Youngest son of the fourth Duke of Argyle. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1766-1773. Last Royal governor of South Carolina, 1775-1778. Wounded in the attack on Charleston and died September, 1778.

Campbell, Sir William (1758-1834). Born in Scotland. Enlisted as a private in a Highland regiment; came to America during the Revolutionary War; took part in the battle of Yorktown, 1781; after his release determined to remain in America. Studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia; practised his profession for nineteen years; elected to the Assembly of Cape Breton; became attorney-general. Appointed to a puisne judgeship in Upper Canada, 1811; chief-justice, 1825; retired, 1829; knighted, 1829. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Campbell, Major William. Placed by Simcoe in command of the fort above the rapids of the Miami in 1794. When General Wayne appeared before the fort with a large force, he refused to abandon it.

Campobello. An island, about eight miles long, in Passamaquoddy Bay, Bay of Fundy. Granted by Lord William Campbell, governor of Nova Scotia, about 1770, to Captain William Owen, father of Admiral Owen. Captain Owen named it partly as a complimentary punning on the name of the governor, and partly because it describes the fine appearance of the island. Under the Convention of 1817 this island, as well as Grand Manan and Deer Island, were assigned to Canada. The United States had claimed all three. Bib.: Atlas of Canada.

Canada. Several theories as to origin of name. Probably derived from the Indian word kanata meaning a village, but supposed by the French to refer to the country. Discovered by John Cabot in 1497. First settlement made by Jacques Cartier, in 1535, on the banks of the St. Charles. In 1608 Champlain founded the city of Quebec, almost on the spot where Jacques Cartier had wintered; the country ceded to Great Britain by France, by the treaty of Paris, 1763; civil government provided by Quebec Act, 1774; and a measure of responsible government by the Constitutional Act, 1791; invasion by Americans, 1775-1776; War of 1812; Rebellions of 1837-1838, in Upper and Lower Canada; union of Upper and Lower Canada, 1841; Confederation of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 1867; Rupert’s Land acquired from the Hudson’s Bay Company, and Manitoba added to the Dominion, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 1873; provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta created, 1905. Present area, 3,729,665 square miles. At the time of its cession to England, Canada comprised the territory west to the Mississippi and south to the Ohio. By the Treaty of 1783 it was restricted to what was later known as Upper and Lower Canada, the boundary running through the Great Lakes except Michigan. Confederation added the Maritime Provinces except Prince Edward Island, and subsequently that province was added, and the immense territory west to the Pacific and north to the Arctic. By Imperial Acts of 1880 and 1895 the Arctic Islands were added to the Dominion insofar as Great Britain had a title to them. Population middle of seventeenth century less than one thousand; in 1670 about six thousand; in 1760 about 70,000; in 1806, Upper and Lower Canada, 320,000; in 1851, Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 2,313,000; in 1871 (first Dominion census), 3,485,761; in 1921, 8,788,483. See also New France; Carrier, Jacques; Cabot, John; Champlain; Quebec Act; Constitutional Act; Union Act; Upper Canada; Lower Canada; Confederation; Arctic Islands; and under names of the various provinces. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Lucas and Egerton, Historical Geography of Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada; Parkman, France and England in North America; Tracy, Tercentenary History of Canada; Garneau, Histoire du Canada; Ferland, Cours d’Histoire du Canada; Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812; Bourinot, Canada under British Rule; Wrong, Canada; Atlas of Canada; Burpee, Historical Atlas of Canada.

Canada Act. See Constitutional Act.

Canada Company. Founded in London, 1824, by John Galt, as a colonizing scheme. A large tract of land was purchased in what is now western Ontario. Dunlop, Talbot, Strickland, and other pioneers of Upper Canada were associated with Galt in the enterprise. The company is still in existence. See also Galt, John; Dunlop, William; Talbot, Thomas. Bib.: Lizars, In the Days of the Canada Company; Strickland, Twenty-seven Years in Canada West; Galt, Autobiography; Jameson, Winter Sketches; Talbot, Six Years in the Canadas; McTaggart, Three Years in Upper Canada; Dunlop, The Backwoodsman.

Canada First Association. Organized in 1874 by a group of men of whom Goldwin Smith was one. William A. Foster was a leading spirit. Others were Charles Mair, John Schultz, George T. Denison, J. C. Halliburton, and Henry J. Morgan. Its platform embraced British connection, closer trade relations with the British West Indies, an income franchise, the ballot and compulsory voting, a scheme for the representation of minorities, encouragement of immigration, reorganization of the Senate, an improved militia system, a revenue tariff that would encourage native industries, no property qualification for members of the House of Commons. Above all it aimed at the cultivation of a vigorous national Canadian spirit. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown; Dent, Last Forty Years; Canada First; A Memorial of the Late William A. Foster; Denison, The Struggle for Imperial Unity.

Canada Trade Act. Passed by Imperial Parliament in 1822, with the object of correcting the injustice to Upper Canada in the apportionment of duties collected. The Quebec Legislature had refused to re-enact the old Acts apportioning a share of duties to Upper Canada, and these Acts were now made permanent. Lower Canada was debarred from imposing new duties on imports by sea without the consent of Upper Canada and the approval of the Imperial Parliament. See also Customs. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada.

Canada Year Books. In November, 1866, a year-book was published at Montreal, edited by Arthur Harvey, of the Department of Finance, Ottawa. It was for the year 1867, and was introduced with these words: “In view of the approaching Confederation of the British Provinces in North America and the prospect of their extending their commercial relations with each other and with foreign parts, a handbook of common information respecting them seems to be required.” The Canada Year Book ceased publication with the volume for 1877. In 1878 Henry J. Morgan established the Dominion Annual Register and Review, which he edited and published up to 1887. In 1886 the Canadian government began publication of an official year book under the title Statistical Abstract and Record of Canada, later changed to The Statistical Year Book of Canada, and which still continues under the title of The Canada Year Book. It was edited first by George Johnson, subsequently by Archibald Blue, Ernest H. Godfrey, and S. A. Cudmore.

Canadian Alliance Society. Founded at York in 1834, with James Lesslie as president and William Lyon Mackenzie as secretary. Among its objects were responsible government, abolition of the Legislative Council, more equable taxation of property, abolition of the law of primogeniture, separation of Church and State, secularization of the Clergy Reserves, cheap postage, improved libel and jury laws, non-interference of the Colonial Office in local provincial affairs.

Canadian Bank of Commerce. Established in the year of Confederation, 1867. Head office in Toronto. Over 660 branches throughout Canada, and in Newfoundland, the West Indies, etc. Capital, $15,000,000, and Reserve, $15,000,000. Has absorbed the Bank of British Columbia, Eastern Townships Bank, Bank of Hamilton, and several others. Sir Edmund Walker, who had entered the service of the bank in 1868, became its president in 1907 and held that position up to the time of his death. Bib.: Ross, History of the Canadian Bank of Commerce.

Canadian Boat Songs. Of two famous boat songs, one was written by Thomas Moore in 1804. The Irish poet had been appointed registrar of the Admiralty in Bermuda in 1803, but remained only a few months, and on his way home made a tour through eastern Canada in the course of which he wrote the poem beginning:

The authorship of the other and more famous boat song has been a matter of controversy for many years, and it is not probable that it will ever be known definitely who wrote those haunting lines:

The poem, which first appeared in “Noctes Ambrosianae” in Blackwoods Magazine, September, 1829, has been attributed to John Galt, James Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd), Professor John Wilson (Christopher North), Sir Walter Scott, John Gibson Lockhart (Scott’s son-in-law), Hugh, Lord Eglinton, and William Dunlop. Bib.: Hervey, The Lone Sheiling; Fraser, The Canadian Boat Song.

Canadian Contingents in the Boer War (1899-1902). Consisted of the Royal Canadian Infantry, Canadian Mounted Rifles, Royal Canadian Artillery, and Strathcona’s Horse. The first contingent, Which sailed for South Africa from Quebec, October 30th, 1899, numbered 1,141. The second contingent, which sailed from Halifax in January and February, 1900, mustered 1,320. These two contingents comprised the official Canadian contribution to the British forces in the war, but Lord Strathcona also raised a contingent at his own expense. This contingent, known as Strathcona’s Horse, sailed from Halifax in March, 1900, the force numbering 540 officers and men, and 599 horses. Over 3,000 Canadians therefore took part in the war against the Boers. Throughout the operations in South Africa, the Canadians signally distinguished themselves, particularly at the battle of Paardeberg on February 27th, 1900, when with the Gordon Highlanders and the Shropshires they led the final attack on Cronje’s position. See Paardeberg; Mafeking; Poplar Grove; Israel’s Poort; Strathcona’s Horse. Bib.: Evans, The Canadian Contingents; Marquis, Canada’s Sons on Kopje and Veldt; Doyle, The Great Boer War.

Canadian Historical Association. Developed in 1922 out of the Historic Landmarks Association of Canada, which itself had been organized in 1907 at a joint meeting of Sections I and II of the Royal Society of Canada. The immediate object of the parent organization had been to further the celebration of the Tercentenary of Quebec in 1908, and its wider purpose to encourage the preservation and marking of the historic landmarks of Canada. The objects of the present Association are to encourage historic research and public interest in history; to promote the preservation of historic sites, buildings, documents, etc.; and to publish historical studies and documents. The presidents have been Lawrence J. Burpee, 1922-1924; Hon. Thomas Chapais, 1925.

Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission. Established 1907, the original members being Hon. Sydney Fisher, Archdeacon Armytage, Professor Shortt, Archdeacon Raymond, Professor Wrong, Professor Colby and Dr. Doughty. It was created for the purpose of advising the Dominion Archivist in the administration of the Public Archives. By selecting representative men from various parts of the country it was felt that the interests of the country as a whole and of the various provinces would be safeguarded. On the outbreak of the War the work of the Commission was interrupted. Since then individual members have been called upon from time to time for advice as to matters affecting their own parts of the Dominion.

Canadian Historical Review. A quarterly, established in 1920, as a continuation in another form of the Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada founded, 1896, by George M. Wrong (q.v.) as an annual. Managing editor of the quarterly, W. S. Wallace.

Canadian History Society. Organized in London, 1923, with the Duke of Connaught as president, the Dowager Countess of Minto as vice-president, and H. P. Biggar as secretary, for the discovery and preservation of new material bearing upon the history of Canada, particularly unpublished private papers and correspondence of families formerly connected with the public life of the country. Membership limited to descendants or representatives of such families. Branches formed in England, France and Canada. One of the activities is a series of biographies by competent scholars, to be prepared under the general editorship of John Buchan.

Canadian Institute. Founded at Toronto, June 20th, 1849, by Sandford Fleming and Kivas Tully, with several other surveyors, civil engineers and architects practising in and about Toronto. A royal charter was granted November 4th, 1851, in which the objects of the society are declared to be “the encouragement and general advancement of the physical sciences, the arts and the manufactures,” etc. Among the early presidents were Sir W. E. Logan, Sir Henry Lefroy, Sir John Beverley Robinson, George W. Allan, W. H. Draper, Sir Daniel Wilson and Sir Oliver Mowat. With it was amalgamated in 1885 the Natural History Society of Toronto, founded in 1878 and incorporated in 1882. The publications of the Institute began with the Canadian Journal, 1852, and have been continued, as Proceedings, Transactions, etc., to the present time. Bib.: The Canadian Journal, 1852-1878; Proceedings, 1879-1890; Transactions, 1890. A semi-centennial memorial volume, published 1899, contains Early Days of the Canadian Institute by Sir Sandford Fleming.

Canadian National Railways. Authorized by Order-in-Council in 1918, and by Act of Parliament in 1919, as a collective title for the group of railways then brought under government ownership, the Canadian Government Railways, the National Transcontinental, the Grand Trunk Pacific, and the Canadian Northern. In 1919 the Grand Trunk System was also brought into the system of state-owned railways. Total mileage of the combined railways over 20,500 in 1925. The capital liability of the combined roads is $2,207,502,000. See also Intercolonial; Grand Trunk; Grand Trunk Pacific; Canadian Northern.

Canadian Northern Railway. The first link in this transcontinental railway dates back to 1896, when construction was commenced on the line from Gladstone towards Lake Winnipegosis. Assisted by the Manitoba government, the Canadian Northern secured the Manitoba lines of the Northern Pacific, and in 1902 completed its line from Winnipeg to Port Arthur. The system was extended east and west, and within a few years reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with numerous branches. Became part of Canadian National Railways in 1919. Bib.: Historical Sketch of the Canadian Northern Railway in Canadian Annual Review, 1906; Hanna, Trains of Recollection; Skelton, The Railway Builders.

Canadian Pacific Railway. The contract for construction of the railway was signed October 21st, 1880, the surveys having already been carried out under the direction of Sandford Fleming (q.v.). Work was begun on the railway in May, 1881, and the last spike driven by Donald A. Smith (afterwards Lord Strathcona) (q.v.) on November 7th, 1885. This was the culmination of a long movement for a transcontinental railway across Canada. George Johnson in his Alphabet of First Things in Canada traces the evolution of the idea from the search for an overland route to the Pacific in the days of New France down to the various suggested transportation projects, first for a waggon road across the continent, then for a water thoroughfare, then for a combined water and rail route, then for a railway from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and finally for a transcontinental railway from Montreal to the Pacific. Under the terms of union, British Columbia had been promised, in 1870, railway connection with the east. The following year two companies were chartered, and these were finally merged in a third, which was to receive a heavy subsidy from the government for building the railway. The Pacific Scandal (q.v.) followed, and the downfall of the Macdonald government. The Mackenzie government adopted the policy of government ownership, but on Macdonald’s return to power in 1878 he reverted to the original plan, and two years later the contract was signed for construction of the railway, the company receiving a Dominion subsidy of $25,000,000 and a land grant of 25,000,000 acres. Pessimistic views were held in many quarters as to the success of such a gigantic undertaking in a sparsely settled country but, although the early years of the road were extremely difficult, it ultimately more than realized the dreams of the men of vision who had stood behind it. The railway to-day has a mileage of 13,600, controls fleets of steamers on the Atlantic, Pacific and the Great Lakes, besides many other interests, and the capital of the company is $677,582,000. Bib.: Skelton, The Railway Builders; McLean, National Highways Overland (in Canada and its Provinces); Hopkins, Canada: An Ency., vol. 2; Parkin, The Great Dominion; MacBeth, Romance of the Canadian Pacific Railway; Begg, History of the North-West; Fleming, Reports on Canadian Pacific Railway, 1874, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880; Johnson, First Things in Canada; Parkin, Sir John A. Macdonald; Secretan, Canada’s Great Highway.

Canadian Representatives Abroad. Nova Scotia appointed a representative in London in 1761; New Brunswick in 1786; Upper Canada in 1794; Lower Canada in 1812; British Columbia in 1857. For a short time after 1845 some of the colonies were represented in London by Crown Agents appointed by the Home government and paid by the colonies. In 1879 the Dominion government created the office of Canadian High Commissioner in London. Sir Alexander Galt was the first High Commissioner, 1879-1883; succeeded by Sir Charles Tupper, 1883-1896; Lord Strathcona, 1896-1914; Sir George H. Perley, 1914-1922; and Hon. P. C. Larkin, 1922. In 1882 an Agent or Commissioner for Canada in Paris was appointed, Hector Fabre occupying the office, 1882-1910, and being succeeded by Philippe Roy. Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British Columbia are still represented in London by Agents-General.

Canadien. A newspaper founded at Quebec in 1806. Became the organ of the French majority in the Assembly. Appealed to race prejudice. Demanded what were considered unconstitutional powers for the Assembly. It was seized and temporarily suppressed by Governor Craig in 1810, but his action was not approved by the Home authorities. See Dionne, Pierre Bédard et Son Temps (R. S. C., 1898). A newspaper with the same name was established in Montreal, to which Papineau, LaFontaine, Doutre, Parent, and other well-known French Canadians contributed.

Canals. The earliest attempt at a canal in Canada, or in North America, was that at Lachine, early in the eighteenth century. (See Catalogue). Between 1779 and 1783, lock canals were built by the Royal Engineers, at the Coteau and the Cascades, on the St. Lawrence. In 1798 a boat canal was built at Sault Ste. Marie by the North West Company. A canal to connect the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain was advocated as early as 1775, by Silas Deane of Connecticut, but was not actually undertaken until 1831. The Welland Canal was commenced in 1824; and the Rideau Canal two years later. In 1841 the government made provision for the construction and improvement of canals. George Brown was a strong believer in artificial waterways. Papineau opposed them. The extension of the westerly canal system was approved by the Quebec Conference. Enlargement suggested by Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State of the United States, in 1874. These artificial waterways of Canada are controlled by the Department of Railways and Canals of the Dominion government. Altogether about $250,000,000 had been spent on canals, river channels and other improvement to waterways in Canada up to 1925. See also Waterways; and under names of individual canals, Lachine; Rideau; Welland; Cornwall; Soulanges; Sault Ste. Marie; St. Peter’s; Richelieu; Ottawa; Trent; Murray; Williamsburg. Bib.: Keefer, Canals of Canada (R. S. C., 1893); Waterways of Canada (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa, Trans., vol. 2); Kingsford, Canadian Canals; Report of Royal Commission on Canals, 1871; Annual Reports on Railways and Canals, Ottawa.

Canard River. A small stream in Essex County, Ontario, falling into the Detroit River. The Americans were repulsed here in the War of 1812.

Canniff, William (1830-1910). Educated Victoria College, and studied medicine at Toronto and New York. Admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, 1855. Served in Crimean War. Practised at Belleville. Professor of Surgery, Victoria College. A surgeon in the American Civil War. Devoted many years to a study of the early history of Ontario or Upper Canada. Bib.: A History of the Early Settlement of Upper Canada; The Medical Profession in Upper Canada; Fragments of the War of 1812-1814.

Canso, Gut of. The strait separating Cape Breton from the mainland of Nova Scotia. There have been several suggested derivations of the name, but the proper one would appear to be that of Dr. Rand, from the Indian word Kamsok meaning “opposite the lofty cliffs.” The strait has at different times been known as Passage du Glas and Straits of Fronsac. The town of Canso was at one time known as Wilmot Town, in honour of Montague Wilmot, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1765. Bib.: Brown, Nova Scotia Place Names.

Canterbury, John Henry Thomas Manners-Sutton, Viscount (1814-1877). Born in England. Entered Parliament, 1841; home secretary from 1841 to 1846 in Peel’s ministry. From 1854 to 1861, lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick; in 1864-1866 governor of Trinidad; and in 1866-1873 governor of Victoria. His term of office in New Brunswick, like that of most of his predecessors, was made up largely of disagreements with the Assembly. The particular bone of contention in his case was a Prohibitory Law passed by the Assembly and which the governor thought so ill-advised that he dissolved the Legislature. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Cape Breton. Champlain had named it Isle St. Laurent. An island at the eastern extremity of Nova Scotia, now forming part of that province. Discovered by John Cabot in 1497. First settlement made by the French in 1712. Town of Louisbourg built and strongly fortified. It was captured by Pepperell and Warren in 1745; restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748; again captured by the British, under Amherst and Boscawen, 1758. Cape Breton was a separate colony of Great Britain, 1784-1820, with Sydney (founded 1785) as its capital. In 1820 it was incorporated with Nova Scotia. See also Louisbourg; Sydney; Nova Scotia. Bib.. Brown, History of Cape Breton; Bourinot, Cape Breton and its Memorials; Grant, Cape Breton, Past and Present.

Capital. See Seat of Government.

Card Money. Circulated in Canada between 1685 and 1717, and again between 1729 and 1759. Jacques de Meulles, the intendant, because of the scarcity of specie, conceived the idea of paying the troops in bills to be redeemed when the ships arrived from France, and, having nothing better adapted to his purpose, took playing cards cut into quarters, stamped them with a crowned fleur de lis, wrote on them their value, and had them signed by the clerk of the treasury and the intendant. Paper money was issued in Acadia in 1708. Scarcity of specie, and particularly of the smaller silver coins, after the conquest, again led to an unusual expedient. Some of the merchants in Canada issued small paper due bills good for future purchases at their stores. They were known as bons from the fact that they were generally in French and read bon pour, etc.; and continued in use for many years, both in Upper and Lower Canada. See also Currency. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada.

Carheil, Etienne de (1633-1726). A Breton, of noble birth. Came to Canada as a Jesuit missionary in 1666. After two years spent at Quebec, left in 1668 for his mission among the Cayugas. Spent a number of years there in a zealous but largely fruitless effort to convert the Indians to Christianity. In 1686 sent to the Hurons at Michilimackinac, and laboured among that tribe for many years. Finally in 1704 returned to Quebec, where he died. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America; Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites.

Cariboo Gold Rush. The finding of gold in the bars of the Fraser river, British Columbia, in 1858, brought a swarm of miners from California. Exhausting the lower bars, they pushed on up-stream. In 1859 rich discoveries were made on the Quesnel, a branch of the Fraser; others followed; the fame of the new gold-fields spread over the world, and in 1860 the Cariboo rush brought adventurers from every quarter, by sea, and by caravan across the plains and through the mountains. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Cariboo Road. A result of the gold rush. As long as the discoveries were confined to the lower Fraser the miners could get in by water, but with the rich strikes higher up-stream the transportation problem became acute. The miners themselves made a road from Harrison Lake to Lillouet in 1858. Between 1862 and 1865 the Royal Engineers built the Cariboo Road from Ashcroft to Barkerville, a practicable road having previously been constructed from Ashcroft down to navigable water on the Fraser. The road was 480 miles in length. The Canadian National Railway follows it rather closely for some distance. Bib.: Laut, The Cariboo Trail; Moberly, History of Cariboo Wagon Road.

Carignan-Salières. The first regiment of regular troops sent to America from France. Raised in Savoy by the Prince of Carignan in 1644; employed for some years in the service of the king of France, and after the peace of the Pyrenees was regularly incorporated in the French army. Fought against the Turks in 1664, and ordered to America the following year. With the original regiment was incorporated the fragment of a regiment of Germans, the whole under the command of Colonel de Salières. The regiment served with distinction in Canada until 1668, when it was ordered home. A large number of officers and men, however, remained in the colony, where they were given generous grants of land. Some of the officers settled along the Richelieu river and became seigneurs. The regiment was reconstructed in France, and under the name of the Regiment of Lorraine existed until 1794. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Susane, Ancienne Infanterie Française, vol. 5; Roy, Le Régiment de Carignan; Sulte, Régiment de Carignan.

Carleton, Sir Guy. See Dorchester.

Carleton, Thomas (1736-1817). A nephew of Lord Dorchester. Served with Wolfe in 1755; quartermaster-general of the army in Canada, 1775; wounded in the naval battle on Lake Champlain, 1776. In 1778, when the United States were planning another invasion of Canada, he was sent to Lake Champlain, made a clean sweep of the settlements on both sides of the lake and destroyed all the provisions, penetrating beyond Ticonderoga. Appointed first lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1784. Opposed the Assembly in their efforts to secure political reforms. Granted a charter to Fredericton Academy. Returned to England in 1803. The colony was governed by administrators until 1817, when General Smyth was appointed governor. Bib.. Cyc. Am. Biog.; Bradley, The Making of Canada.

Carling, Sir John (1828-1911). Born near London, Ont. Elected for London to Canadian Assembly, 1857. In 1867 elected both to the Ontario Legislature and the Dominion House of Commons, and sat in both for some time. Receiver-general in Cartier-Macdonald government, 1862. Commissioner of agriculture and public works in the first Ontario administration. Postmaster-general and later minister of agriculture in Dominion government. Was largely responsible for the establishment of the Agricultural College at Guelph, and the Experimental Farms of both the Dominion and Ontario. Called to the Senate, 1891, resigned, 1892, reappointed, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Carlton House. Two forts of this name were founded by the Hudson’s Bay Company. One stood on the banks of the Saskatchewan, above the forks; the other on the upper waters of the Assiniboine. Both were established about the end of the eighteenth century. Alexander Ross describes the former in 1825 as next in extent and importance to Fort Edmonton, but insignificant for defensive purposes.

Carnarvon, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, fourth Earl of (1831-1890). Colonial secretary, 1866-1867, and as such presided over the Westminster Conference, and introduced the British North America Act; colonial secretary again, 1874-1878; chairman of Colonial Defence Commission, 1879-1882. Joined Imperial Federation League, 1884. Bib.: Speeches on Canadian Affairs; For biog. see Dict. Nat. Biog.

Caroline. In December, 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie had set up a rebel government on Navy Island in the Niagara river. Most of his adherents were American sympathizers. They used a steamboat, the Caroline, to bring men and supplies from the United States’ side. Captain Drew, R.N., was sent with a party of volunteers to destroy the vessel. He found her at a wharf on the American shore, set fire to her and cut her adrift. In the skirmish, several men were killed. The incident for a time increased the ill-feeling between Americans and Canadians. See also Navy Island; Rebellion of 1837-1838. Bib.: Drew and Wood, The Burning of the Caroline; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Lindsay, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Caron, Sir Joseph Philippe Réné Adolphe (1843-1908). Son of the following. Born in Quebec. Studied law; entered public life in 1873 as member of Dominion House for Quebec County; elected for Rimouski, 1891. Minister of militia and defence, 1880-1892, which included the period, peculiarly difficult and embarrassing to a French Canadian minister, of the second Riel Rebellion. It is a curious coincidence that French-Canadian ministers were in charge of the militia department through both the Riel Rebellions. See Cartier. Postmaster-general, 1892. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Caron, Réné Edouard (1800-1876). Born in the parish of Ste. Anne, Lower Canada. Educated at the Seminary of Quebec and at St. Pierre College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1826. Mayor of Quebec, 1833-1837; sat in Assembly, 1834-1836; appointed a member of the Legislative Council of Lower Canada by Lord Gosford, but did not take his seat. Member of the Legislative Council of Canada, 1841; Speaker, 1843-1847 and 1848-1853; member of the La Fontaine-Baldwin government and of the Hincks-Morin government; judge of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1853; afterwards judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench and judge of the Seigniorial Court. He is described as a man of good judgment, and of moderate political views. Bib.: Turcotte, R. E. Caron; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years and Can. Por.

Carroll Charles, of Carrollton (1737-1832). Represented Maryland in the Congress at Philadelphia, 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence. Afterwards elected to the Senate of Maryland, and the federal Senate. With his brother John, afterwards a Roman Catholic archbishop, he accompanied Benjamin Franklin (q.v.) to Canada in 1776, in the unsuccessful effort to convert the Canadians to Republicanism. Bib.: Journal during his visit to Canada in 1776, with Memoirs and Notes by Brantz Mayer; and for biog., Cyc. Am. Biog.

Carter, Sir Frederic Bowker Terrington (1819-1900). Born in St. John’s, Newfoundland. Studied law and called to the bar of Newfoundland, 1842; appointed Q. C., 1859. Member of the Legislative Assembly, 1855-1878; Speaker, 1861-1865; premier, 1865-1870 and 1874-1878; knighted, 1878; chief-justice of Newfoundland, 1880. Represented Newfoundland at the Quebec Conference, 1864. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Can. Men.

Carter, Sir James (1805-1878). Born in England. Educated at Cambridge; called to the bar, 1832. In 1834 a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, and in 1851 chief-justice of the province, retiring on a pension in 1865. In 1859 knighted. Spent the latter part of his life in England. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Cartier, Sir Georges Étienne (1814-1873). Born in St. Antoine, on the Richelieu. Educated at Montreal College. Carried away with the fiery eloquence of Papineau, he fought in the rebel ranks at St. Denis and St. Charles, fled to the American side of the border, and remained in exile at Burlington until the amnesty was proclaimed. Before this warlike episode, Cartier had begun to study law in Montreal. On his return he continued his preparation, called to the bar 1835, and in a few years was well established in a law practice. In 1849 he made his first appearance in public life, being elected to the Assembly for Verchères. In the Legislature he rapidly developed the qualities of leadership, and within four years of entering the Assembly had twice been offered a portfolio. In 1855 he became a member of the cabinet, and, with short intervals of opposition, remained in power for a quarter of a century. If he rose to the top it was not because he was surrounded by mediocrity, for among his contemporaries were such brilliant leaders as Cauchon, Sicotte, Chauveau and Loranger on his own side; Laflamme, Dessaules, Fournier, Doutre and the Dorions among the young Liberals. In 1855 also began that association with John A. Macdonald that was to last to the end of Cartier’s life. They were both members of the MacNab-Morin administration that year. No man in Canadian public life was more bitterly assailed, but like Mazarin and many another statesman, he rode serenely through the storm. He was essentially a constructive leader, and it was largely due to his sound mind and public spirit that many admirable Acts were added to the statute books on such broad questions as education, land tenure and the judiciary. Politically he was an autocrat. “I here confess,” he said on one occasion, “that in all important acts of my life, of my political career, I have not consulted anyone.” Cartier was far-sighted. For years he had seen that improved transportation facilities were the key to Canada’s future, and he missed no opportunity of urging the construction of railways and the deepening of waterways. But his statesmanship never revealed itself more clearly than in his association with the great movement for Confederation. As early as 1858, as leader of the government, he had incorporated in the Speech from the Throne a proposal for a conference of the different colonies to discuss terms of Union, and, with Galt and Rose, had gone to England to obtain the concurrence of the British government. That scheme fell through, but Cartier was again to the fore in the Conferences at Charlottetown and Quebec, and it was undoubtedly due to his immense influence with his fellow-countrymen and their confidence in his judgment and patriotism, that the French Canadians were persuaded to give their support to a plan which on the surface seemed to menace their institutions and their very identity. And on the other hand, it was mainly because, in the interests of French Canada, Cartier stood like a rock for a federal system that those who, like Macdonald, favoured a legislative union, had to give way. Cartier had been premier from 1858 to 1862. In the first Dominion government he took the portfolio of militia and defence, and in a large sense represented the interests of Quebec. In 1869 with William McDougall he negotiated the purchase from the Hudson’s Bay Company of Rupert’s Land. The following year this French-Canadian minister was given the awkward responsibility of suppressing a rebellion led by the French half-breed, Louis Riel. In 1871 he presented the Bill creating the Province of Manitoba, in which he had inserted a clause designed to protect the interests of the Roman Catholic minority. The following year his action in refusing to support disallowance of the New Brunswick school law which did away with separate schools, aroused a storm of protest throughout Quebec. After Confederation, from a variety of causes, Cartier’s influence in the province of Quebec diminished. He was defeated in Montreal, and although again returned to Parliament, never regained the influence he had once wielded over his countrymen. At a time when many in England were frankly recommending independence for Canada and the other great colonies, Cartier staunchly upheld the importance of British connection. Separation he looked upon as an act of suicidal folly. He also did much to bring about a better understanding between English and French-speaking Canadians. As a recognition of his great services in bringing about Confederation, Cartier was made a baronet. In 1872 he made his last appearance in Parliament, taking an important part in the debate on the Canadian Pacific Railway Bill and other matters. He sailed for England in September, and died in London. Bib.: Speeches on the Militia Bill. For biog., see David, Esquisse Biographique; Turcotte, Sir G. É. Cartier; DeCelles, Cartier; Boyd, Sir Georges Étienne-Cartier; Sulte, Sir G. É. Cartier, A Sketch; DeCelles, LaFontaine et Cartier; Lavergne, Georges-Étienne Cartier.

Cartier, Jacques (1491-1557). In 1534, sailing out of St. Malo, made his first voyage to the New World, entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence by way of the Straits of Belle Isle, landing on the Gaspé shore, and coasting around the eastern end of Anticosti, naming many bays, harbours and capes on the mainland and larger islands. Returned to France. The following year again sailed to the gulf, and entered the river St. Lawrence, exploring the coast as he went and adding further names to prominent landmarks. Continuing his voyage, passed the mouth of the Saguenay, and landed on the Island of Orleans, which he named Ile Bacchus. Brought his little ships into the St. Charles River, upon whose banks stood the Indian village of Stadacona. After exploring the St. Lawrence as far as the Indian town of Hochelaga (Montreal), returned to Stadacona, where he wintered. In the spring of 1536 sailed back to France, taking with him the Iroquois chief, Donnacona. In 1541, made a third voyage to Canada, in the course of which he explored the St. Lawrence as far as the second rapid above Hochelaga. Roberval was to have followed with a number of colonists, but did not actually sail until the spring of 1542. When he reached Newfoundland, he met Cartier on his way home. Roberval’s colony proved disastrous, and Cartier, there is reason to believe, undertook a fourth voyage to the New World to rescue the survivors. “Jacques Cartier,” says Professor Leacock, “as much, perhaps, as any man of his time, embodied in himself what was highest in the spirit of his age. He shows us the daring of the adventurer with nothing of the dark cruelty by which such daring was often disfigured. He brought to his task the simple faith of the Christian whose devout fear of God renders him fearless of the perils of sea and storm. The darkest hour of his adversity in that grim winter at Stadacona found him still undismayed. He came to these coasts to find a pathway to the empire of the East. He found, instead, a country vast and beautiful beyond his dreams. The enthusiasm of it entered into his soul. Asia was forgotten before the reality of Canada. Since Cartier’s day four centuries of history have hallowed the soil of Canada with memories and associations never to be forgotten. But patriotism can find no finer example than the instinctive admiration and love called forth in the heart of Jacques Cartier by the majestic beauty of the land of which he was the discoverer.” Bib.: For a complete list of the original editions of Cartier’s voyages, see Harrisse, Notes pour Servir, etc. Tross, Paris, reprinted them as follows: D’Avezac, Bref Récit et Succinte Narration de la Navigation Faite par le Capitaine Jacques Cartier aux Iles de Canada, etc. (1863); Michelant et Ramé, Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534 (1865); Michelant et Ramé, Relation Originale du Voyage de Jacques Cartier au Canada en 1534 (1867). The first English version is that of Florio (1580). In 1600 Hakluyt included a more accurate translation in his Principal Navigations. H. B. Stephen’s essay, Jacques Cartier and his Voyages to Canada, is accompanied by a new translation of the voyages. The Cartier voyages are discussed in the Trans. R. S. C., by W. F. Ganong (1887), (1889); Paul de Cazes (1884), (1890); Abbé Verreau (1890), (1891), (1897); Archbishop Howley (1894); and in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans., Voyages de Découvertes au Canada (1843); Demazieres, Notes sur Jacques Cartier (1862). See also Pope, Jacques Cartier; Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Des Longrais, Jacques Cartier; Dionne, La Nouvelle France de Cartier à Champlain; Doughty’s “Beginnings of Canada” in Canada and its Provinces; Leacock, Mariner of St. Malo; Biggar, Voyages of Jacques Cartier. An exhaustive bibliography will be found in Baxter, A Memoir of Jacques Cartier.

Cartwright, Richard (1765-1815). Born at Albany, New York. On the outbreak of hostilities with the mother country came with his parents to Upper Canada. For a time served as secretary to Colonel Butler of the Queen’s Rangers, and later engaged in business at Kingston in partnership with Robert Hamilton. Associated with John Strachan at Kingston, and influenced him to join the Church of England. Made judge of the Court of Common Pleas for the district, and on the formation of Upper Canada into a separate province, appointed to the Legislative Council. Simcoe had once branded him as a Republican, but afterwards acknowledged that he was a valuable member of his Council. Urged to accept a seat in the Executive Council, but repeatedly refused. Created lieutenant of the county of Frontenac by Simcoe, and during the War of 1812 served as colonel of the militia. Brock had a high opinion of his ability and character. Occupied a position of prominence in the political and business life of the province. The township of Cartwright, in the county of Durham, Ontario, was named after him in 1816. Bib.: Cartwright, Life and Letters of Hon. Richard Cartwright.

Cartwright, Sir Richard John (1835-1912). Grandson of the preceding. Born at Kingston. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Entered public life, 1863, as member for Lennox and Addington, in the Canadian Assembly. Elected for Lennox to the first Dominion House of Commons; for Centre Huron, 1878-1882; for South Huron, 1883-1887; for South Oxford, 1887-1904. Minister of finance in Mackenzie Cabinet, 1873-1878, and the chief spokesman of the Liberal party while in Opposition on all fiscal questions. He was at one time strongly in favour of commercial union with the United States, and introduced the unrestricted reciprocity resolutions of 1888 and 1889. On the return of the Liberals to power, in 1896, became minister of trade and commerce. A delegate to Washington in 1897 to promote better trade relations between Canada and the United States. Represented Canada on the Joint High Commission at Quebec, 1898, and Washington, 1898-1899. Called to the Senate, 1904, and government leader of the Senate, 1909. In appearance and manner he remained the dignified statesman of an earlier generation. Bib.: Works: Remarks on the Militia of Canada; Memories of Confederation; Reminiscences. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Carvell, Frank Broadstreet (1862-1924). Born Bloomfield, New Brunswick. Educated Boston University. Studied law and called to the bar. K. C., 1907. Represented Carleton county, New Brunswick, in the New Brunswick Legislature, 1899-1900; and the same county in the Dominion House of Commons, 1904-1919. Minister of public works in Union government, 1917-1919. Chairman of the board of railway commissioners, 1919-1924. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Carver, Jonathan (1732-1780). Born at Stillwater, New York. Joined the company of rangers raised by John Burk of Northfield, 1756-1757. After the treaty of Paris, 1763, conceived the idea of exploring the Western territory acquired by England. Between 1766 and 1768, travelled from Michilimackinac to the Mississippi, ascended the Minnesota River, and returned by way of Grand Portage, Lake Superior. Went to England, 1769, to secure government support for his plans of Western exploration, but failed. Died there, January 31st, 1780. Carver’s reliability and the authenticity of his narrative have long been the subject of controversy among historians of western America. Certainly as an original narrative his Travels have only slight value. Bib.: Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, in the Years 1766, 1767, and 1768. The best edition is the third, published at London, 1781. For a bib. of the various editions, and translations, see Lee, Bibliography of Carver’s Travels (Wisconsin State Hist. Soc. Proc., 1909). See also Durrie, Jonathan Carver and “Carver’s Grant” (Wisconsin Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. 6); Gregory, Jonathan Carver: His Travels in the North-West (Parkman Club Pub., No. 5); Bourne, Travels of Jonathan Carver in Amer. Hist. Review, 1906; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac.

Casgrain, Henri Raymond (1831-1904). After studying medicine, decided to enter the church, and was ordained a priest in 1856. In 1872, owing to an affection of the eyes, he was compelled to abandon the ministry, and thereafter devoted himself entirely to literature. His first work, Légendes Canadiennes, appeared in 1861; and this was followed by many other publications, in history, biography, and belles-lettres. One of the principal contributors to the Soirées Canadiennes, the Foyer Canadien, and other French-Canadian periodicals. A charter member of the Royal Society of Canada; elected president of that body in 1889. Bib.: Among his principal works are: Histoire de la Mère Marie de l’Incarnation; Biographies Canadiennes; Un Pèlerinage au Pays d’Evangéline; Montcalm et Lévis. For bib., see R. S. C., 1894, 21. For biog., see Routhier, Éloge historique de H. R. Casgrain (R. S. C., 1904); Morgan, Can. Men.

Cass, Lewis (1782-1866). Served under General Hull in War of 1812. Drew up Hull’s flamboyant proclamation to the people of Canada. Opposed surrender of Detroit. Afterwards governor of territory of Michigan. Bib.: Contributed to Historical Sketches of Michigan, 1834. For biog., see McLaughlin, Lewis Cass; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Cassels, Sir Walter Gibson Pringle (1845-1923). Born Quebec. Called to the bar 1869. Q. C., 1883. A Bencher of the Law Society. Appointed judge of the Exchequer Court of Canada, 1908.

Castle of St. Louis. See Château St. Louis.

Catalogne, Gédéon de. Employed for some years on military and other engineering works in Canada. In 1701 commenced a canal from Lachine to the Little River, with the object of providing a boat channel around the rapids. The work was abandoned, and resumed in 1717, but was again abandoned, owing to the cost of the rock cutting. Accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois, in 1687.

Cataraqui. Name derived from the Iroquois. A fort was built by the engineer Raudin in 1673, under Frontenac’s orders, the site having been selected by La Salle. The fort stood at the mouth of the Cataraqui, on the site of the present city of Kingston. Here Frontenac held a great Council with representatives of the five Iroquois nations, 1673. On Frontenac’s recommendation, Cataraqui was granted to La Salle as a seigniory, upon his repaying the amount the fort had cost the king. Fort Frontenac, as La Salle named it, became the base of his ambitious scheme of western explorations. In 1682 La Barre, who had succeeded Frontenac as governor, and was too small-minded a man to appreciate the importance of La Salle’s discoveries, seized the fort during the latter’s absence and turned it into a trading post for himself and his friends. The following year the king ordered it to be restored, and full reparation given to La Salle. Dongan having demanded the destruction of the fort as the price of peace, Denonville in 1689 ordered the garrison to blow up the walls, destroy the stores and return to Montreal. In 1695 Frontenac, who had returned to Canada, had the fort rebuilt and garrisoned. It remained in commission up to 1758, when it was captured and destroyed by the English. See also Kingston; La Salle. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac, and La Salle; Machar, Old Kingston; Sulte, Le Fort de Frontenac (R. S. C., 1901); Girouard, L’Expédition du Marquis de Denonville (R. S. C., 1899).

Cathcart, Charles Murray, Earl (1783-1859). Served in Holland, 1799; saw service through Peninsular War; fought at Waterloo; assumed title, 1843; succeeded General Jackson as commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America, 1845; administrator the same year, on the departure of Sir Charles Metcalfe; governor-general, 1846; succeeded by Lord Elgin, 1847. Cathcart was essentially a soldier, with a soldier’s point of view. He had been sent out to Canada because of the threatening position of the Oregon boundary dispute and the possibility of war with the United States, and that was his sole concern. He took no interest whatever in responsible government or any other problems of civil government, and was content to let his ministers run the country their own way. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Cauchon, Joseph Edouard (1816-1885). Educated at the Séminaire de Québec; studied law and called to the bar, but turned immediately to journalism. Edited Le Canadien for a time; and in 1842 established the Journal de Québec. Entered public life, 1844, as member for Montmorency, which county he represented continuously until 1872. Entered MacNab government, 1855, as commissioner of crown lands. Became commissioner of public works in Cartier-Macdonald ministry, 1861-1862. Speaker of the Senate, 1868-1872. Accepted presidency of the Council in Mackenzie administration, 1875-1877; minister of inland revenue, 1877. Resigned the same year to accept the lieutenant-governorship of Manitoba, 1877-1882. Bib.: Works: Remarks on the North-West Territories; Étude sur l’Union Projectée des Provinces Britanniques; L’Union des Provinces de l’Amérique du Nord. For biog., see Revue Canadienne, 1884; Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.

Caughnawaga Indians. A community of Iroquois, chiefly drawn from the Oneida and Mohawk, and speaking a modification of the Mohawk tongue. Having been converted by the Jesuit missionaries, they were induced to settle in 1668 at La Prairie, near Montreal. In 1676 they removed to Sault St. Louis, and the majority of their descendants have remained in that vicinity ever since. About 1755 a new settlement was formed at St. Regis, farther up the St. Lawrence. At the period of the Revolutionary War their sympathies were for a time obtained for the cause of the Americans. Many accompanied the fur traders to the west as hunters, and became familiar with the country both east and west of the Rocky Mountains. In the narratives of the fur trade they are referred to as Iroquois. Bib.: Colden, Five Nations; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Cayley, William. Inspector-general, 1845-1848. Metcalfe was bitterly attacked for appointing what was described as “the clerk of a company of blacksmiths in Niagara” to such a responsible position. Again inspector-general, 1854-1858. By the Act of 1859, the office was changed to minister of finance. Cayley favoured the division of the Clergy Reserves among the various denominations. Bib.: Finances and Trade of Canada. For biog., see Dent, Last Forty Years.

Cayugas. One of the tribes of the Iroquois confederacy. Parkman gives four forms of the name: Cayugas, Caiyoquos, Goiogoens, Gweugwehonoh. Their fighting strength is given in the Relation of 1660 as 300. At this time, however, they had been weakened by continual warfare. The Cayuga villages stood on the shore of Cayuga Lake, and their territory extended from that lake to the Owasco, both included. The tribe lay between the Senecas on the west and the Onondagas on the east. By the beginning of the nineteenth century they had been crowded off their ancestral lands, and scattered abroad. Some seven hundred are now on the Six Nation reserve, in the Niagara peninsula. The remainder are for the most part in the western United States. See also Iroquois; Senecas; Onondagas; Mohawks; Tuscaroras. Bib.: Pilling, Iroquoian Languages.

Céleron de Blainville, Jean Baptiste (1664-1735). Born in Paris; came to Canada as a lieutenant in the troops; and died in Montreal. His son Pierre Joseph (1693-1760) led the troops against the Chickasaws in 1739; was commandant at Detroit, 1742-1743, and again, 1750-1754; at Niagara, 1744-1746; and at Crown Point, 1747-1749. Served as major on Montcalm’s staff, 1756-1759. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Census. The first census in Canada seems to have been taken in 1640, when the inhabitants numbered 375, distributed as follows: married men, 64; married women (three born in Canada), 64; widower, 1; widows, 4; unmarried men, 35; boys (30 born in Canada), 58; girls (24 born in Canada), 48; nuns, 6; Jesuits, 29; others, 66. Benjamin Sulte found the population in 1650 to have been 705; and in 1663 about 2,500. The census of 1665 gives the total population as 3,251. The first census of the Dominion was taken in 1871, when the population was 3,635,024; the census of 1881 gave a total of 4,324,810; of 1891, 4,833,239; of 1901, 5,371,316; of 1911, 7,206,643; of 1921, 8,788,483. See also Acadians. Bib.: Census of Canada, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921. See also Johnson, First Things in Canada; General Index, Trans. R. S. C., under Census; and Canada Year Book.

Chabanel, Noél. Jesuit missionary in the Huron country, 1643. Had been a professor of rhetoric in France, before coming to Canada. When the Hurons were driven from their country by the Iroquois, in 1649, he was sent to help Garnier among the Petuns. Having been called to St. Joseph Island, in Matchadash Bay, to which the demoralized flock of the Jesuits had been removed, Chabanel reached the mission of St. Mathias, and continuing his journey was lost in the woods, where he fell a victim to one of his own Hurons, who afterwards confessed that he had murdered the missionary. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Chabot, J. (1807-1860). Born at St. Charles, Bellechasse, Lower Canada. Studied law and practised in Quebec. Sat in the Assembly for Quebec, 1843-1850; for Bellechasse, 1851-1854; and for Quebec, 1854-1856. Became chief commissioner of public works, 1849, and again in 1852; government director of the Grand Trunk, 1854, and Seigniorial Tenure commissioner the same year. Voted against secularization of the Clergy Reserves. Appointed judge of the Superior Court of Lower Canada, 1856. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Chambly. Fort, otherwise known as St. Louis, on the Richelieu. Built of palisades in 1665. Burnt by the Iroquois in 1702. Rebuilt of stone, 1709-1711; taken by the Americans under Montgomery in 1775. The interior buildings burnt in 1776. Restored the following year. Abandoned in 1850. Preserved now by the National Sites and Monuments Board as an historic memorial.

Chambly, Jacques de. An officer of the Carignan Regiment; built Fort St. Louis 1665, and given its command. In 1672 the seigniory of Chambly granted to him. Succeeded De Grandfontaine as governor of Acadia. Made his headquarters at Pentagouet, a fortified post at the mouth of the Penobscot. In 1674 his fort was captured and he himself carried prisoner to Boston. Set at liberty and returned to France. In 1676 sent out again to Acadia, and remained at Port Royal until 1680, when he was transferred to Grenada in the West Indies, and later to Martinique, where he died. Bib.: Sulte, Régiment de Carignan (R. S. C., 1902).

Champlain, Samuel (1567?-1635). Born at Brouage. From his father who was a mariner he early learned to love the sea, and after a period of service in the army under Marshal d’Aumont he made a voyage to Spain in 1598, and from there with the Spanish fleet to the West Indies as captain of the Saint Julien. He saw service at Porto Rico and in Mexico the following year. Visited Cuba, and on his voyage back to Spain captured two English vessels. On his return to France in 1601 he was appointed geographer to the king. Two years later he sailed for Canada with Pont-Gravé, on behalf of the colonizing company of Aymar de Chastes. Arrived at Tadoussac toward the end of May, explored the Saguenay for some distance in the hope that it might prove to be the long-sought passage to Cathay, ascended the St. Lawrence to Sault St. Louis, returned and sailed around the coast of Gaspé, and was back in France in September. De Chastes had died during his absence, but Champlain was determined to carry on his plans for colonization and succeeded in interesting Henry IV. In 1604 he again sailed to the west, as geographer and historian of the expedition to Acadia commanded by de Monts. With them went Poutrincourt and Biencourt. Pont-Gravé sailed in another vessel. They sailed along the coast and into the Bay of Fundy, to Port Royal and up to Chignecto. On their way down the other side of the Bay they visited and named the St. John river, and wintered on St. Croix Island at the mouth of the river of the same name. Champlain continued down the coast, naming Mount Desert. The following June with de Monts he again explored the coast as far as Cape Cod. St. Croix having proved undesirable, the settlement was moved to Port Royal. In 1606 Champlain continued his explorations, and in 1607 returned to France. The next year he sailed for the St. Lawrence in the Don de Dieu, and laid the foundations of the city of Quebec, where he spent the winter. He had some trouble with the Indians and also was compelled to put down a mutiny among his own men. Scurvy proved an even more dangerous enemy. Sailed for France in 1609, having previously made an expedition up the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu to Lake Champlain, where he defeated a war party of Iroquois. In 1610 Champlain again sailed to Quebec with a number of artisans. In June he once more attacked and defeated the Iroquois on the Richelieu, and was back in France in September. Sailed for Canada in 1611, and ascended the St. Lawrence to and built a fort on the island of Ste. Hélène, in what is to-day the harbour of Montreal. Here he had information from the Indians as to the country beyond, which was to incite him to further explorations. On his return to France, he found that de Monts, who had sunk a great deal of money in the attempt to colonize Canada, had determined to abandon the enterprise. Champlain appealed to Louis XIII, who made the Prince de Condé viceroy of New France, and the explorer sailed again in 1613 as his lieutenant. In France Champlain had met a young man named Nicolas du Vignau who said that he had ascended the Ottawa to the Northern Sea. With him he set out in May and ascended the Ottawa to Allumette Island. From the Algonquin chief who lived there, Tessouat, he learned that Vignau was a liar and had never been beyond this spot. On this journey he lost his astrolabe, which was dug up by a farmer two hundred and fifty-six years afterward. Having returned to France, he again sailed to Canada in April, 1615, bringing with him several Récollet missionaries. In July, with Étienne Brûlé and a party of Indians, he ascended the Ottawa, crossed through Lake Nipissing, and descended French River to Georgian Bay, where he visited villages of the Huron Indians, where one of the Récollet, Father Le Caron, was already established. In August he set out with a war party of Hurons to attack the Iroquois. Their route was by way of Lake Simcoe and the Trent to the Bay of Quinte. Crossing the foot of Lake Ontario, they entered the Iroquois country. The expedition proved a failure, Champlain was wounded, and suffered severely on the retreat to the Huron villages. On his return to Quebec Champlain called a meeting of his Council to consider plans for the development of the colony. As a result of their deliberations he took Le Caron with him to France in an effort to secure funds for the Huron Mission. Nothing much came of that, but Champlain brought out with him to Quebec in 1617 one Louis Hébert, who materially helped him in building up the little settlement. Returning to France the following year, he again sailed in 1620. He had suffered many disappointments, but remained undismayed and more determined than ever to make New France worthy of its name. Not the least of his difficulties was to keep the peace between the rival fur trading companies of Rouen and De Caën, both too selfish to consider the best interests of the colony. This year he began the construction of the Château St. Louis at Quebec. In 1627 he became one of Richelieu’s Company of New France, or the Hundred Associates. The following year he had the mortification of learning that Kirke had captured the fleet on its way up the river with settlers and supplies, and in 1629 the greater humiliation of surrendering Quebec to the English captain. After its restoration he returned, and devoted the remaining years of his life to the welfare of the little town whose growth he had watched and fostered for more than a quarter of a century. See also Quebec; Port Royal; de Monts; Pont-Gravé; Brûlé; Du Vignau. Bib.: Works: Œuvres de Champlain (Laverdière), 1870; Voyages (Laverdière), 1870; Voyages (trans. by Otis, with memoir by Slafter), 1878-1882; Grant, Voyages of Samuel de Champlain; Bourne, Champlain’s Voyages; Biggar, Works of Samuel de Champlain; (Champlain Society, in course of pub.). For bib. of the original editions, see Harrisse, Notes pour servir, etc. For biog., see Gravier, Vie de Samuel Champlain; Sedgwick, Samuel de Champlain; Dix, Champlain: the Founder of New France; Verreau, Samuel de Champlain (R. S. C., 1899); Dionne, Champlain; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Colby, Founder of New France; Henley, Samuel de Champlain.

Champlain Lake. Discovered by Samuel Champlain, July, 1609. Here took place the first hostile encounter between the French and the Iroquois. The French were the aggressors, and had bitter enough cause to remember the fact throughout the century. In 1666 the Sieur de la Motte built a fort on Ile La Motte, which was afterwards abandoned. Fort St. Frédéric was built at Crown Point, 1731. It was enlarged and strengthened in 1734, and again in 1742. Lake Champlain became the war thoroughfare, not merely between the Iroquois and French, but between New France and New England. Fort Carillon, also known as Ticonderoga, was built, 1755-1756. See also Ticonderoga; Crown Point; Lake George; Dieskau; Sir William Johnson; Montcalm; Abercromby; Bourlamaque; Amherst; Ethan Allen; Carleton; Montgomery; Burgoyne. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Crockett, History of Lake Champlain; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Reid, Lake George and Lake Champlain; Palmer, History of Lake Champlain. See bib. note in Crockett.

Chandler, Edward Barron (1800-1880). Elected to New Brunswick Assembly, 1827, for Westmoreland, which he represented until 1836, when called to Legislative Council. Sent to London in 1833 by the Assembly to lay its grievances before the colonial secretary. Their principal contention was that the revenue derived from the public domain should be controlled by the Legislature. Became executive councillor, 1844. Engaged in negotiations for Intercolonial Railway, 1850-1852; reciprocity, 1854; and Confederation, 1865. Favoured a federal rather than a legislative union. Succeeded Tilley as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1878. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Dent, Can. Por.

Chansons of French Canada. Most of the inimitable folk-songs of Quebec came in their original form from France, and have undergone more or less of a transformation in their new environment. A few originated in French Canada. They are part of the history of French Canada, and are peculiarly associated with the life of the voyageur and the fur trader. Various attempts have been made to translate them into English, by G. T. Lanigan, William McLennan, Edward Sapir, E. W. Thomson, and others, with but indifferent success. Many of them are practically untranslatable. Bib.: Gagnon, Chansons populaire; Lanigan, National Ballads of Canada; McLennan, Songs of Old Canada; Burpee, Songs of French Canada; Wood, Footnotes to Canadian Folk-Songs (R. S. C., 1896); Bourinot, Songs of Forest and River in Rose-Belford Monthly, 1877; French Songs of Old Canada, pictured by W. Graham Robertson; Tiersot, French Folk-Songs; Barbeau and Sapir, Folk Songs of French Canada; Larue, Chants populaires du Canada.

Chapais, Jean Charles (1812-1885). Born in Rivière Ouelle, Quebec. Member of the Executive Council and commissioner of public works, 1864-1867. Delegate to the Quebec Conference. In 1867 privy councillor and minister of agriculture; and in 1869-1873 receiver-general. In 1868 called to the Senate. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Chapais, Joseph Amable Thomas (1858-). Son of preceding. Educated at Laval University. Called to the bar, 1879. Edited Le Courrier du Canada for some years after 1884. Appointed member of Legislative Council of Quebec, 1892, and elected Speaker, 1895; president of the Executive Council, 1896; and minister of colonization and mines, 1897. Appointed to the Senate of Canada, 1919. Professor of history at Laval University. President of the Royal Society of Canada, 1923-1924. Bib.: Works: Jean Talon, Intendant de la Nouvelle France; Discours et Conférences; The Great Intendant; le Marquis de Montcalm; Cours d’histoire du Canada. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Chapleau, Sir Joseph Adolphe (1840-1898). Studied law and called to the bar, 1861. Elected to Quebec Legislature, 1867, and successively solicitor-general and provincial secretary of the province. Premier of Quebec, 1879. Entered Dominion Cabinet, 1882, as secretary of state. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1892; knighted, 1896. Bib.: Works: Léon XIII, Homme d’État; Question des Chemins de Fer. For biog., see J. A. Chapleau: Sa Biographie et Ses Discours; Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Chapman, Henry Samuel (1803-1881). Born in England. Came to Canada, 1823, and established at Montreal the Daily Advertiser, the first daily newspaper published in British America, 1833. Connected with several other newspapers. A strong supporter of the Reform party. Attempted to secure the support of Joseph Howe for the agitation in Lower Canada. Removed to England and called to the bar, 1840. Went to New Zealand, where he became a judge. Died in Dunedin, New Zealand.

Charbonnel, Armand François Marie de (1802-1860). Born in France. Came to Canada in 1839. Roman Catholic bishop of Toronto, 1850-1860. Carried on a controversy with Ryerson over the public school question. Drafted a Separate School bill. Died at Lyons, France.

Charlevoix, Pierre-François-Xavier de (1682-1761). First came to Canada in 1705, as an instructor in the Jesuits’ College at Quebec. Returned to France in 1709. It was at this time that he gathered the material for his Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France. Again visited Canada in 1720 by order of the French government to report as to the best route for an overland expedition in search of the Western Sea. In the course of this journey visited the missions and posts of what was then the extreme western frontier of New France, returning to France in 1723 by way of Mobile. His account of the history of New France and the character of the population in his day is of interest, as are his comments on the life and character of Champlain, Frontenac, Lescarbot and other Canadian statesmen and explorers. Bib.: Besides his Histoire du Paraguay and Histoire de l’Isle Espagnole ou de S. Dominique, Charlevoix was the author of La Vie de la Mère de l’Incarnation and of the first general history of Canada, Histoire et Description Générale de la Nouvelle France. His Voyage dans l’Amerique Septentrionale was translated into English in 1756. Dr. J. G. Shea’s translation of the History was published at New York in 6 vols., 1866-1872; and reprinted by F. P. Harper, New York, in 6 vols. An abridged translation of Charlevoix’s Journal is found in vol. 3 of French, Hist. Coll. of Louisiana. For biog., see J. E. Roy, Essai sur Charlevoix (R. S. C., 1907).

Charlottetown. Capital of Prince Edward Island. Originally founded by the French, about 1750, and then known as Port la Joie. In 1713 it was a fortified post, with a garrison of sixty soldiers. The population numbered 1,354 in 1752; and in 1758 it had been increased to over 4,000 by the arrival of a large number of Acadians from the mainland. It came under British rule in 1763, and received its present name about 1768. Incorporated as a town, 1855. Bib.: Campbell, History of Prince Edward Island.

Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Suggested by Tupper. The original idea was to bring about a union of the Maritime provinces, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, and delegates were sent to Charlottetown from the Legislatures of the three provinces. During the meeting representatives arrived from the Legislature of Canada, with proposals for a wider federation. These proposals were discussed, and felt to be so important that it was finally decided to call a larger Conference at Quebec for fuller consideration. Delegates at Charlottetown: Nova Scotia—Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, R. B. Dickey, A. G. Archibald, Jonathan McCully; New Brunswick—S. L. Tilley, W. H. Steeves, J. M. Johnson, E. B. Chandler, J. H. Gray; Prince Edward Island—E. Palmer, W. H. Pope, J. H. Gray, A. Coles, T. H. Haviland, E. Whalen, A. A. McDonald; Canada—John A. Macdonald, George Brown, G. E. Cartier, A. T. Galt, T. D. McGee, H. L. Langevin, Wm. McDougall, Alexander Campbell. See Quebec Conference; Macdonald; Tupper. Bib.: Whelan, Union of the British Provinces; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Charlton, John (1829-1910). Born near Caledonia, New York, he studied law and engaged in newspaper work; came to Canada, 1849, farmed for a time and then went into the lumber business. Represented North Norfolk in the House of Commons for twenty-four years. Although a staunch Liberal, he voted with the Macdonald government on the Riel question; opposed the Jesuit Estates bill; and was responsible for the so-called Charlton Act and other social reform legislation. One of the founders of the Dominion Lord’s Day Alliance. Chairman of Ontario Royal Mining Commission, 1888. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Charny-Lauzon. See Lauzon-Charny.

Chartier de Lotbinière, Eustache Gaspard Michel. Consulted in connection with the drafting and consideration of the Quebec Act. See Con. Doc. 1759-91. Elected Speaker of the Assembly, 1793.

Chartier de Lotbinière, René Louis. A member of the Sovereign Council, 1677. Appointed by the king. The Sovereign Council was a species of superior court for the trial of both civil and criminal cases in New France. Also director of Company of the Colony.

Chastes, Aymar de. Governor of Dieppe. Granted a charter for the colonization of Canada. He was closely associated with Champlain, and the famous Champlain manuscript found at Dieppe and printed first by the Hakluyt Society in English and afterwards by Abbé Laverdière of Quebec in French, was preserved in his family. Sent Pont-Gravé and Champlain to Canada in 1603. Died the same year.

Château de Ramezay. On Notre Dame Street, Montreal. Originally built in 1705 by Claude de Ramezay, then governor of Montreal, as his residence. Here he held his little colonial court up to 1724. The château was sold to the Company of the Indies, 1745. The latter held it until 1763, when it was purchased by William Grant, who in turn sold it to the British government for two thousand guineas. It became the official residence of the governors under the British régime until 1849. At the time of the American invasion in 1775, the château was the headquarters of Montgomery, and the following year it was occupied by Benedict Arnold and Benjamin Franklin. Lord Metcalfe was the last resident governor. After 1849 the château was used for a time as government offices, and when the government was removed from Montreal, courts were held in it and it was also used for school purposes. In 1894 the city bought it from the Provincial government for the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, and the following year the Society established there its historical portrait gallery and museum.

Château Haldimand. At Quebec. Consisted of an addition to the Château St. Louis, the foundation stone of which was laid on May 5th, 1784, by Haldimand. Named in Haldimand’s honour. Consisted principally of a large assembly room for use on state occasions. Afterwards used as a normal school in connection with Laval University, until 1892, when it was pulled down. The south-west wing of the Château Frontenac covers its site.

Château St. Louis. At Quebec. Commenced by Governor de Montmagny, 1647, and completed by his successor, D’Ailleboust. Demolished, 1694, and rebuilt with new wing. Enlarged, 1723; and in 1808 renovated and again enlarged, by government of Lower Canada. Up to the close of French régime, it was the official residence of the governors of Canada; and after the cession, their British successors continued to occupy the building. It was destroyed by fire, 1834. The Château Frontenac hotel now stands immediately back of the site of the Château St. Louis, which occupied part of what is now Dufferin Terrace. See Habitation de Québec. Bib.: Gagnon, Le Fort et la Château St. Louis; Doughty, Fortress of Quebec; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Châteaufort, Marc Antoine Bras-de-fer de. Acted as governor, 1635-1636, after the death of Champlain and until the arrival of De Montmagny. His instructions brought by Father le Jeune.

Châteauguay. Battle in War of 1812-14, October 26th, 1813. The stream from which the battle took its name, rises in Franklin County, New York, and falls into the St. Lawrence a few miles above Caughnawaga. The scene of the battle was about six miles above the confluence of the English with Châteauguay River. Hampton was in command of the Americans and De Salaberry commanded the Canadian troops, with Colonel Macdonell in charge of the reserves. Although the former had an overwhelmingly superior force, the result of the battle was in favour of the Canadians; and the contemplated attack on Montreal was abandoned. The battle was won mainly by French-Canadian militia under a French-Canadian commander. See also War of 1812; Salaberry. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Lighthall, An Account of the Battle of Châteauguay; Macdonell, The Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Chatham. City of Kent county, Ontario. Site reserved for a town-plot by Governor Simcoe in 1795. Actual settlement dates from about 1834. Named after Chatham, England. Incorporated as a town in 1855, and as a city in 1895. Bib.: Douglas, Canadian City Names.

Chatham, William Pitt, first Earl of (1708-1778). The “Great Commoner,” who brought England “to a height of prosperity and glory unknown to any former age.” He opposed with all his strength the vicious policy of colonial taxation. Was largely instrumental in the repeal of the Stamp Act. In May, 1774, he told the House of Commons that it was his determination “to stand for England and America.” He urged continually a conciliatory policy towards America, until it became apparent that the colonists would be satisfied with nothing less than independence. His broad outlook and unerring instinct in the choice of men were chiefly responsible for the triumphs of British policy at home and abroad. Sent Boscawen and Amherst to the capture of Louisbourg, and Wolfe and Saunders to victory at Quebec. Bib.: Almon, Anecdotes and Speeches of Chatham; Rosebery, William Pitt; Thackeray, History of William Pitt; Green, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham; Correspondence of William Pitt with Colonial Governors, ed. by Kimball. See his letters and instructions to Wolfe, Saunders, and Amherst, in Doughty, Siege of Quebec, and Wood, Logs of Conquest of Canada. See also Grant, Colonial Policy of Chatham.

Chaumonot, Joseph (1611-1693). Born near Chatillon-sur-Seine. Came to Canada, 1639, with Madame de la Peltrie, Marie de l’Incarnation, and Fathers Vimont and Poncet. Accompanied Brébeuf as missionary to the Neutral Nation, whose country was along the north shore of Lake Erie, 1640. Found his task rather discouraging at first. “Never could I imagine,” he writes, “such hard-heartedness as there is in a savage. You cannot convert him unless you pay him for it.” He developed an unusual facility in picking up Indian languages, which was of immense assistance to him in his work. Sent to the Onondagas, 1655. Missionary in charge of the Hurons at Old Lorette, where, in 1674, he built the chapel in honour of Our Lady of Loretto. Bib.: Shea, Vie de Chaumonot; Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America. Chaumonot’s Huron Grammar was translated into English and published in the Quebec Lit. and Hist. Soc. Trans., 1831.

Chaussegros de Léry, Gaspard (1682-1756). Sent to Canada in 1716 to superintend the fortifications of Quebec, Montreal, and other places in the colony. Prepared a plan of the cathedral at Quebec in 1725; and of the fortifications at Quebec in 1730. Mentioned as having been at Fort St. Frédéric in 1742; made a plan of Detroit in 1750. Bib.: Traité de Fortification.

Chaussegros de Léry, Gaspard-Joseph. Son of preceding. Also an engineer. Made a legislative councillor in 1774.

Chauveau, Pierre Joseph Olivier (1820-1890). Born at Quebec. Educated at Quebec; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. First entered public life, 1844, defeating John Neilson in Quebec County. Represented the same constituency in the Assembly until 1855. He was one of the leaders of the Opposition in 1847. Solicitor-general, in Hincks-Morin ministry, 1851; and provincial secretary, 1853. Voted against the secularization of the Clergy Reserves. In 1855 succeeded Dr. Meilleur as chief superintendent of education in Lower Canada. In 1867 elected to the Dominion Parliament, as well as to the Quebec House, and the same year formed a provincial ministry. DeCelles describes him as a man of “sterling honour and of very moderate views in politics.” Resigned, 1873, and the same year became Speaker of the Senate, retiring in 1874. Three years later sheriff of Montreal. Bib.: Works: Charles Guérin, Roman de Mœurs Canadiennes; François-Xavier Garneau, Sa Vie et Ses Œuvres; L’Instruction Publique au Canada; Souvenirs et Légendes. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Chauvin, Pierre de, Sieur de Tonnetuit. A Huguenot. Appointed captain of the garrison at Honfleur, 1589. Obtained trading monopoly for ten years in Canada. Made a trading voyage to Canada, 1600, bringing out a few colonists, whom he landed at Tadoussac. Sailed again the following year, with a larger fleet, but no colonists; and again in 1602. Died, 1603. Another Pierre de Chauvin, Sieur de la Pierre, born at Dieppe, was left by Champlain in command of Quebec in 1609, while he and Pont-Gravé were in France. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France.

Chedabucto. Near the Straits of Canso. Now known as Guysborough, Nova Scotia. In 1682 a company was formed in France for the establishment of an inshore fishery on the coasts of Acadia. They built a fort and fishing establishment at the head of Chedabucto Bay. Frontenac was there in 1689. In 1690 Phipps sent Captain Alden to capture Chedabucto. Montorgueil, who was in command, had a garrison of only fourteen men, and was compelled to surrender.

Chequamegon. Bay on south side of Lake Superior. Radisson built a small post there in 1658. Jesuit mission established in the following decade. Du Lhut passed the bay on his way to the Sioux country in 1679. Le Sueur built a trading post on the bay in 1693. It stood on Madeline Island, and the site was marked by a tablet in 1925. It was abandoned in 1698, and in 1718 LeGardeur de Saint Pierre built a military post known as Fort La Pointe. A small French village grew up about it, and survived up to the cession of Canada. French fur traders were succeeded there by British traders, and these later by Americans. Bib.: Thwaites “Story of Chequamegon” in Wis. Hist. Colls., xiii.

Chesterfield Inlet. On the north-west coast of Hudson Bay. Named about 1749 after the fifth Earl of Chesterfield (1694-1773), who had been secretary of state from 1746 to 1748, and author of the famous Letters. Explored by Tyrrell in 1893. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Chief Justices of Alberta. Arthur Lewis Sifton, 1905-1910; Horace Harvey, 1910-1924; Horace Harvey (Appeal), 1924; W. C. Simmons (Trial), 1924.

Chief Justices of British Columbia. Matthew Baillie Begbie, 1859-1894; Theodore Davis, 1895-1898; Angus John McColl, 1898-1905; Gordon Hunter (Supreme), 1905; James Alexander Macdonald (Appeal), 1909.

Chief Justices, Chancery Court, Ontario. William Hume Blake, 1849-1862; Philip Michael Matthew Scott Vankoughnet, 1862-1869; John Godfrey Spragge, 1869-1881; Sir John Alexander Boyd, 1881.

Chief Justices, Common Pleas, Upper Canada and Ontario. James Buchanan Macaulay, 1849-1856; William Henry Draper, 1856-1863; William Buell Richards, 1863-1868; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1868-1878; Adam Wilson, 1878-1884; Matthew Crooks Cameron, 1884-1887; Thomas Galt, 1887-1894; William Ralph Meredith, 1894-1912; Richard Martin Meredith, 1912-1925. All the Ontario Courts have now been abolished, and, under the Ontario Judicature Act, 1925, three new Courts are created—Appellate Division, Court No. 1; Appellate Division, Court No. 2; High Court Division; the three constituting the Supreme Court of Ontario. Of the first, Sir William Mulock is chief justice; of the second, F. R. Latchford; and of the third, R. M. Meredith.

Chief Justices, Court of Appeal, Ontario. William Henry Draper, 1868-1877; Thomas Moss, 1877-1881; John Godfrey Spragge, 1881-1884; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1884-1897; George William Burton, 1897-1900; John Douglas Armour, 1900-1902; Charles Moss, 1902-1912; Sir William Ralph Meredith, 1912-1923; Sir William Mulock, 1923-1925.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Lower Canada. Sir James Stuart, 1841-1849; Joseph Rémi Vallières de St-Réal, 1842-1847; Jean Roch Rolland, 1847-1849.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Montreal. James Monk, 1794-1825; James Reid, 1825-1838; Michael O’Sullivan, 1838-1841.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Quebec. William Osgoode, 1794-1802; John Elmsley, 1802-1805; Henry Alcock, 1805-1808; Jonathan Sewell, 1808-1838; James Stuart, 1838-1841.

Chief Justices, King’s Bench, Upper Canada and Ontario. William Osgoode, 1791-1796; John Elmsley, 1796-1802; Henry Alcock, 1802-1806; Thomas Scott, 1806-1816; William Dummer Powell, 1816-1825; William Campbell, 1825-1829; John Beverley Robinson, 1829-1862; Archibald McLean, 1862-1863; William Henry Draper, 1863-1868; William Buell Richards, 1868-1875; Robert Alexander Harrison, 1875-1878; John Hawkins Hagarty, 1878-1884; Adam Wilson, 1884-1887; John Douglas Armour, 1887-1900; Sir William Glenholme Falconbridge, 1900-1920.

Chief Justices of Lower Canada. William Osgoode, 1794-1824; James Reid, 1825-1830; Jonathan Sewell, 1830-1838.

Chief Justices of Manitoba. Alexander Morris, 1872-1874; Edmund Burke Wood, 1874-1882; Lewis Wallbridge, 1882-1887; Thomas Wardlaw Taylor, 1887-1899; Albert Clements Killam, 1899-1903; Joseph Dubuc, 1903-1910; Hector Mansfield Howell, 1906-1910, (Appeal) 1910-1918; W. E. Perdue, 1918; Thomas Graham Mathers (King’s Bench), 1910.

Chief Justices of New Brunswick. George Duncan Ludlow, 1784-1809; Jonathan Bliss, 1809-1822; John Saunders, 1822-1834; Ward Chipman, 1834-1850; James Carter, 1851-1865; Robert Parker, 1865; William Johnston Ritchie, 1865-1875; John Campbell Allen, 1875-1896; William Henry Tuck, 1896-1908; Frederick Eustache Parker, 1908-1914; Ezekiel McLeod (Appeal), 1914-1917; Sir J. D. Hazen, 1917; Pierre Armand Landry (King’s Bench), 1914-1924; J. H. Barry, 1924.

Chief Justices of the North-West Territories. Thomas Horace McGuire, 1902-1903; Arthur Lewis Sifton, 1903-1905.

Chief Justices of Nova Scotia. Jonathan Belcher, 1754-1776; Charles Morris, 1776-1778; Bryan Finucane, 1778-1885; Isaac Deschamps, 1785-1788; Jeremiah Pemberton, 1788-1791; Thomas Andrew Strange, 1791-1797; Sampson Salter Blowers, 1797-1833; Brenton Halliburton, 1833-1860; William Young, 1860-1881; James McDonald, 1881-1904; Sir Robert Linton Weatherbe, 1905-1907; Charles James Townsend, 1907-1918; R. E. Harris, 1918.

Chief Justices of Prince Edward Island. John Duport, 1770-1776; Peter Stewart, 1776-1801; Thomas Cochrane, 1801-1802; Robert Thorpe, 1802-1807; Cesar Colclough, 1807-1813; Thomas Tremlett, 1813-1824; S. G. W. Archibald, 1824-1828; E. J. Jarvis, 1828-1852; Sir Robert Hodgson, 1853-1874; Edward Palmer, 1874-1889; Sir William Wilfred Sullivan, 1889-1917; J. A. Mathieson, 1917.

Chief Justices of Quebec. William Gregory, 1764-1766; William Hey, 1766-1777; Peter Livius, 1777-1786; William Smith, 1786-1793. From 1778 to 1786 the functions of the office of chief justice were actually performed by a commission of three judges, Mabane, Dunn and Williams.

Chief Justices, Queen’s Bench, Lower Canada and Quebec. Sir James Stuart, 1849-1853; Sir Louis Hypolite LaFontaine, 1853-1864; Jean François Joseph Duval, 1864-1874; Antoine Aimé Dorion, 1874-1891; Alexandre Lacoste, 1891-1907; Henri T. Taschereau, 1907-1909; Sir Louis Amable Jetté, 1909-1922; P. E. Lafontaine, 1922.

Chief Justices of Saskatchewan. Edward Ludlow Wetmore, 1907-1912; Frederick William Gordon Haultain, 1912-1918; Sir F. W. G. Haultain (Appeal), 1918; J. T. Brown (King’s Bench), 1918.

Chief Justices, Superior Court, Quebec. Edward Bowen, 1849-1866; William Collis Meredith, 1866-1884; Andrew Stuart, 1885-1889; Sir Francis Godschall Johnson, 1889-1894; Sir Louis Edelmar Napoléon Casault, 1894-1904; Adolphe Basile Routhier, 1904-1906; Sir Melbourne McTaggart Tait, 1906-1912; Charles Peers Davidson, 1912-1915; Sir F. X. Lemieux, 1915.

Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada. Sir William Buell Richards, 1875-1879; Sir William Johnston Ritchie, 1879-1891; Sir Samuel Henry Strong, 1892-1902; Sir Henri Elzéar Taschereau, 1902-1906; Sir Charles Fitzpatrick, 1906-1918; Sir Louis Henry Davies, 1918-1924; Francis Alexander Anglin, 1924.

Chief Justices of Vancouver Island. David Cameron, 1853-1858; Joseph Needham, 1858-1859.

Chignecto Basin. At the head of the Bay of Fundy. From a Micmac Indian word Signiukt meaning “a foot of cloth.” The French called the bay Beaubassin and also Bay de Gennes. In 1755 the English named it Cumberland. Later changed to present name. Fort Beausejour, or Fort Cumberland as it was renamed in 1755, and Fort Lawrence, as well as the old Acadian settlement of Beaubassin, stood near its shores. Bib.: Brown, Nova Scotia Place Names.

Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley (1827-1896). Entered the House of Commons, 1860; financial secretary, 1865-1866; first lord of the Admiralty and privy councillor, 1868. In 1875 came to Canada on Lord Dufferin’s invitation as a commissioner under the Prince Edward Island Land Purchase Act. Secretary of state for war, 1880-1882; chancellor of the exchequer, 1882-1885; and home secretary, 1886. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Chinook Indians. A tribe inhabiting the country about the mouth of the Columbia in the days of the fur trade. Accounts of them are found in the narratives of Alexander Henry, Ross Cox, Alexander Ross, Franchère, and other writers of the period. They gave their name to the Chinook Jargon, an Indian trade language of the Pacific coast in which English, French and possibly Russian words were afterwards incorporated; and also to the warm winds that blow from the Pacific over the Rocky Mountains. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Chipewyan Indians. A group of Indian tribes in northern Canada, including the Desnedekenade, Athabaska, Thilanottine, Etheneldeli and Tatsanottine or Yellow-knives. Name is derived from a Cree name for the parkas or shirts of the northern Indians which were pointed and ornamented with tails before and behind. They were first visited by Samuel Hearne, and later by Alexander Mackenzie, Franklin and many other later Arctic explorers. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Chipman, Ward (1754-1824). Graduated at Harvard, 1770. A United Empire Loyalist, he emigrated to Halifax, 1776, and thence to England. Returned to America and in 1782 was deputy muster-master-general of the army. In 1783 went to St. John, and became a member of the Assembly, advocate-general, solicitor-general, judge of the Supreme Court, a member of the Council, and in 1823 president and commander-in-chief of New Brunswick. He was one of the Maine Boundary Commissioners. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Chipman, Ward (1786-1851). Son of preceding. Graduated at Harvard, 1805. Removed to St. John, and rose to the office of chief-justice of New Brunswick. Resigned, 1850. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Chippewa, Battle of. On the south side of Chippewa Creek, which empties into the Niagara not far from the falls. July 3rd, 1812, the Americans under Generals Brown, Winfield Scott and Ripley crossed the Niagara into Canada, captured Fort Erie, and marched down to Chippewa where on the fifth they were attacked by Riall who, after a desperate fight, was forced to withdraw his men and fall back on Queenston and Fort George. The British had 1,800 and the Americans about 5,000 men. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Chippewa Indians. A large tribe, of Algonquian stock, formerly ranging along both shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, and westward as far as North Dakota. First mentioned in the Jesuit Relation of 1640 as living around Sault Ste. Marie. During the eighteenth century, they fought successfully against the Sioux, Foxes, and Iroquois. They numbered in 1764 about 25,000; and at the present time count over 30,000, of whom about one-half are on reservations in Canada. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes; Grant, Sauteux Indians in Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest.

Chittenden, Thomas (1730-1797). First governor of Vermont, 1778-1797. He took a very aggressive attitude, at the time of the Revolution, in demanding the separation of Vermont from New York and its recognition as a separate state. As there seemed little hope of that, he entered into secret negotiations with Haldimand with a view to bringing Vermont back to the British side, on condition that it should be received as a separate colony. He appears to have played a double part and attempted to persuade Washington of his loyalty to the cause of the revolting colonies. Ethan and Ira Allen (q.v.) were the principal agents in the movement to make Vermont once more a British province. Bib.: Chipman, Thomas Chittenden; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Cholera Epidemics, 1832 and 1834. In the spring of 1832 vessels from the British Isles with immigrants brought a virulent type of cholera to Canada. One ship from Dublin arrived in the St. Lawrence with nearly half the passengers down with the disease. In spite of the establishment of a quarantine station at Grosse Isle, below Quebec, and other sanitary precautions, cholera spread rapidly throughout both Lower and Upper Canada. Between June and the end of September 3,292 died. In 1834 another epidemic appeared. Cholera was immediately added to the other grievances against the government, and one of the Ninety-Two Resolutions is specifically devoted to the epidemic and the government’s responsibility therefor. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada, vol. ix; DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

Chouart dit des Groseilliers, Médard. Born in France about 1621. Came to Canada, 1642. After serving the Jesuits for some years as a donné, or lay helper, engaged in the fur trade, and with his brother-in-law Radisson (q.v.) made extensive explorations in the West and North, 1659-1663. With Radisson afterwards went to England and was instrumental in establishing the Hudson’s Bay Company, and laying the foundations of its gigantic fur trading monopoly on the shores of Hudson Bay. Bib.: Dionne, Chouart et Radisson (R. S. C., 1893); Sulte, Radisson in the North-West (R. S. C., 1904); Sulte, Découverte du Mississippi (R. S. C., 1903); Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Pathfinders of the West and Conquest of the Great North-West.

Christian Guardian. A weekly newspaper, founded at York in 1829. Egerton Ryerson its first editor. Exponent of Methodist views on religious, educational and political questions. Took an active part in the movement for the secularization of the Clergy Reserves, and opposed a state church in Canada. Merged in The New Outlook, 1925.

Christian Watchman. A weekly newspaper founded at St. John, N.B., in 1861, by James and Budd De Mille, to counteract the influence of the official Baptist paper, which was being used to promote the interests of a political group. It ran for one year, when, having achieved its purpose, it ceased publication. Contained a number of brilliant articles on political, historical and other subjects by the two brothers, who in fact wrote most of the material in each number. James De Mille was afterwards the author of a number of novels.

Christie, Alexander (1792-1874). Chief Factor in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1821. Succeeded Donald McKenzie as governor of Rupert’s Land, with headquarters at Fort Garry on the Red River. He was associated with Sir George Simpson on the Council of Assiniboia. Retired from the fur trade in 1849 and returned to his native Scotland. Two of his sons and a grandson were in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Cowie, Company of Adventurers.

Christie, David (1818-1880). Born in Edinburgh, Scotland. Educated at Edinburgh High School. Came to Canada, 1833, and devoted himself to farming. Took a prominent part in politics as a leader of the Radical wing of the Reformers. Sat for Wentworth in the Legislative Assembly, 1851-1854, and for East Brant, 1855-1858. Elected to the Legislative Council, 1858, and held his seat until Confederation. Appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867; secretary of state, 1873; Speaker of the Senate, 1874-1878. Administrator of Ontario during the illness of the lieutenant-governor, 1875. Died in Paris, Ontario. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Christie, Robert (1788-1856). Born in Nova Scotia. Repeatedly expelled through Papineau’s influence from the Assembly of Lower Canada on the charge of having advised Dalhousie to dissolve the Legislature. Afterwards reconciled with Papineau. Re-elected after the union, and held his seat until 1854. Contributed to Quebec Gazette and Mercury. Bib.: History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, from the Commencement to the Close of its Existence as a Separate Province. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.

Chronicle. Newspaper published at Halifax. Established by William Annand, 1843. Joseph Howe one of the principal contributors, and in 1844 became editor. Succeeded by Jonathan McCully. Howe contributed a series of articles attacking Confederation. When Howe accepted Confederation, the Chronicle bitterly attacked him as a renegade. Bib.: Longley, Joseph Howe.

Church of England. The first Anglican church in what is now Canada was built at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1750, when Cornwallis was governor of the province. The first see was established in 1787. Dr. Charles Inglis (q.v.) as bishop of Nova Scotia had charge of the whole of British North America. The first service held in Quebec was in the Ursuline Convent, September, 1759. The first Anglican bishop of the diocese of Quebec was Dr. G. J. Mountain (q.v.), appointed in 1793; and in 1839 Dr. John Strachan (q.v.) became first bishop of Toronto. The early history of the Church in Upper Canada was involved with the political history of the country, in such matters as the Clergy Reserves, educational policy and the idea of a state church. As population grew, the eastern dioceses were subdivided into nine. The see of Rupert’s Land, founded 1849, was subsequently divided into Rupert’s Land, Moosonee, Saskatchewan, Calgary, Mackenzie River, Qu’Appelle, Athabaska, Keewatin, and Selkirk. In 1859 was established the see of British Columbia, divided later into New Westminster and Caledonia. In 1857 the Church of England Synod was legally constituted; and after that year bishops were elected by the votes of clergy and laity in Canada. The first Church Congress was held, 1883. The General Synod of the Church in the Dominion was established, 1893, and the metropolitans of Canada and Rupert’s Land were made archbishops, the first of whom were Dr. J. T. Lewis and Dr. R. Machray (q.v.). Its membership in Canada by the census of 1921 was 1,407,994. Bib.: Hopkins, Canada: An Ency., vol. 2; Cross, The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies; Anderson, History of Church of England in the Colonies; Akins, Church of England in North American Colonies; Taylor, The Last Three Bishops Appointed by the Crown; Lowndes, Bishops of the Day; Machray, Life of Archbishop Machray; Mockridge, Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland; Champion, The Anglican Church in Canada; Wynne, The Church in Greater Britain.

Churchill, Fort. See Prince of Wales Fort.

Churchill River. Rises in La Loche Lake, lat. 50° 10´ N., long. 109° 40´ W., and after a course of 1,000 miles, empties into Hudson Bay. The mouth of the river was discovered by Munk, a Danish navigator, in 1619, but it was not until 1774 that its upper waters were discovered by Joseph Frobisher (q.v.), and explored by Thomas Frobisher and Alexander Henry, the Elder (q.v.), in 1775. The Churchill was formerly known under various names: Danish River, in honour of Munk; English River, so called by Frobisher; and Missinipi, the native name. Bib.: Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Atlas of Canada; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Civil Law. After the cession of Canada to England, this became a matter of vital importance to the French population. The British authorities found themselves in a very difficult position. The attempt to enforce English law, in a community ignorant of the language and accustomed to an entirely different code, had to be abandoned as impracticable. The situation was complicated by distrust and ill-feeling between the French and the numerically weak but very aggressive English population. After a period of ineffective compromise that ended in something like legal chaos, it was finally decided to adopt the plan that Carleton had favoured—the retention of the French civil law and the adoption of the British criminal law, and this decision was embodied in the Quebec Act. Bib.: Bourinot, Constitutional History of Canada and How Canada is Governed; Ashley, Earlier Constitutional History of Canada; Houston, Canadian Constitutional Documents; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Bradley, Lord Dorchester.

Civil List. In England this means the sum voted by Parliament for the support of the Royal household. In Canada it meant the amount voted for the expenses of government, or what is to-day known as the Estimates. Its control was a fruitful source of dispute between the governors and the Assemblies in the early days of all the colonies. Durham in his Report had recommended that the control of the revenues of the Crown should be vested in the Assembly, and Lord John Russell, in 1839, said he was willing that the Crown revenues should be placed entirely at the disposal of the Assembly, provided a permanent provision was made for the Civil List. Sydenham shared these views, and was able to put them into practice. Eventually the principle was accepted that the Legislature should control the revenues without any such proviso, and the expenses of government were left to the judgment of the representatives of the people. Bib.: Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development.

Civil Secretary. The internal management of the provinces, at one time in the hands of the provincial secretaries of Upper and Lower Canada, was for many years controlled by the civil secretary of the lieutenant-governor. Sydenham had these duties transferred to members of the provincial government, and confined the duties of his own secretary to correspondence with the Home government and foreign governments. Bib.: Shortt, Lord Sydenham.

Clark, George Rogers (1752-1818). American frontier leader. A Virginian who had become one of the pioneers in Kentucky. In July, 1778, he surprised and took the British forts of Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, and Vincennes on the Wabash. In December, Hamilton, lieutenant-governor of Detroit, retook Vincennes. In February, 1779, Clark again captured the post, and treated the garrison with unnecessary harshness. Bib.: Campaign in the Illinois; English, Conquest of the Country North-West of the Ohio.

Clark, Sir William Mortimer. Born in Aberdeen, Scotland, 1836. Educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen; studied law at the University of Edinburgh, and admitted a writer to the signet, 1859. Came to Toronto, 1859; called to the bar of Ontario, 1869; Q. C., 1887. Chairman of Knox College. Engaged largely in financial affairs. Lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1903-1908. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Clark-Kennedy, W. H. Lieut.-Colonel, 24th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. At Arras, on the 27th and 28th of August, 1918, he led his battalion with conspicuous bravery, initiative and skill, under very heavy shell and machine-gun fire, capturing machine-gun nests and making it possible for the whole brigade to move forward. Under continuous fire he went up and down the line improving the position and inspiring his men. Though severely wounded, he refused aid, dragged himself into a shell hole, and despite intense pain and loss of blood, continued to direct his men until he had established a strong line of defence. “It is impossible,” says the official report, “to overestimate the results achieved by the valour and leadership of this officer.”

Clarke, Sir Alured (1745-1832). Served in Germany under Lord Granby in 1745. Accompanied Lord Howe to America. Lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, 1782-1790. Lieutenant-governor of Lower Canada, 1790-1795. Administered the government in 1791 in Dorchester’s absence. Put into effect the important Constitutional Act of that year. He was responsible for the rather inappropriate Old Country names applied at this time to the newly-created counties in French-speaking Canada. After leaving the country, filled several high offices in India, finally becoming governor-general. Returned to England, 1802, and made field-marshal, 1830. Clarke township in Durham county, Ontario, named after him. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Clarke, Leonard. Acting-corporal 2nd Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. Near Pozières, September 10th, 1916, when detailed with his section of bombers to clear the continuation of a newly captured trench, and cover the construction of a “block,” most of his party having become casualties, about twenty of the enemy under two officers attacked the trench. He boldly advanced against them, emptied his revolver and two enemy rifles that he had picked up, and when the enemy turned and ran he pursued them, shooting four and capturing a fifth.

Claus, Daniel (1727-1787). Born in Germany, he came to America about 1748, and with Conrad Weiser went on an embassy to the Iroquois. He rapidly picked up the Indian languages, and was sent to assist Sir William Johnson, whose daughter he married. Became assistant superintendent of Indian affairs. Served as a Loyalist in the American Revolution; captain in the Royal American Regiment. Commanded the Indian auxiliaries in 1777 in St. Leger’s expedition against Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk. Promoted to colonel, and in 1812 commanded the militia on the Niagara frontier. Died in Wales. Bib.: Cruikshank, Reminiscences of Colonel Claus (Canadiana, 1890); Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii; Sabine, Loyalists.

Clear Grits. The Radical wing of the Reform party in Upper Canada. Corresponded to the Rouge party in Lower Canada. David Christie credited with originating the name. “We want,” he told George Brown, “only those who are Clear Grit.” Among the leaders of the group were Christie, Caleb Hopkins, Dr. John Rolph, James Lesslie and William McDougall. Brown was for some years a bitter opponent of the Clear Grits and their policy, but afterwards became their leader. They advocated universal suffrage, vote by ballot, biennial parliaments, free trade and direct taxation, secularization of the Clergy Reserves, abolition of primogeniture, and various reforms in legal administration. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years; Mackenzie, George Brown; Lewis, George Brown; Bourinot, Elgin; Kennedy, Lord Elgin.

Clergy Reserves. This vexed problem arose out of a provision in the Act of 1791 that certain lands were to be set apart for the support of a “Protestant Clergy.” These Reserves were at first claimed exclusively by the Church of England. In 1822 the Presbyterians demanded a share, on the ground that the Church of Scotland was recognized by the Act of Union between England and Scotland as an Established Church. Other Protestant denominations afterwards claimed a share, arguing that the Reserves had been intended for the benefit of all Protestant clergy, rather than for the clergy of any particular denomination. The dispute was maintained for many years, with increasing bitterness, in the Legislature, in the press, and among the people in general. In 1819 the law officers of the Crown had given their opinion in favour of the Presbyterian claims. Colborne, in 1836, brought the indignation of the other denominations to the boiling point by endowing forty-five Anglican rectories. This became one of the grievances leading up to the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Sydenham, in 1840, persuaded the Assembly to pass an Act providing for the sale of the Clergy Reserves and the distribution of the proceeds among the different Protestant denominations. The Act was disallowed in England. The Imperial Parliament itself then tried its hand at settling the question, with such indifferent success that the entire secularization of the Reserves became one of the main planks in the platform of the Reform party. However, when that party came into power in 1848, it showed such reluctance either to ask for the repeal of the Imperial Act or to bring down legislation of its own, that the Clear Grits succeeded in breaking up the old Reform party and overthrowing the ministry. Finally, in 1854, the Coalition government known as the MacNab-Morin administration introduced and passed a bill for the secularization of the Reserves. By the irony of events, the man who was mainly instrumental in settling this bitter problem was neither a Clear Grit nor a Reformer, but the Conservative statesman, John A. Macdonald. See also John Strachan; George Brown; Egerton Ryerson; Robert Baldwin. Bib.: Lindsey, The Clergy Reserves; Hincks’ Letters in Montreal Herald, December, 1882; Dent, Last Forty Years; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Ryerson, Story of My Life; Bethune, Memoir of Bishop Strachan; Parkin, Sir John Macdonald; Bradley, Lord Dorchester; Lewis, George Brown; Bourinot, Lord Elgin; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Burwash, Egerton Ryerson.

Clinton, Sir Henry (1738-1795). Son of George Clinton, governor of Newfoundland, 1732, and governor-in-chief of New York, 1741. Sent to America, 1775; served in the South, and with Howe at Philadelphia; succeeded him as commander-in-chief, 1778; captured Charleston, 1780; succeeded by Sir Guy Carleton, and returned to England, 1782. He was for some time in correspondence with Haldimand in connection with the attempt to bring Vermont back to British allegiance. In 1794 elected to the British House of Commons. Rose to rank of general, and became governor of Gibraltar, where he died. Bib.: Works: Narrative of the Campaign in North America, Rejoinder to Cornwallis’ Observations; Observations on Stedman’s American War. For biog., see Kingsford, History of Canada; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Clitherow, John (1782-1852). Entered army, 1799; lieutenant-colonel, 1812; served in the Egyptian campaign, 1801; the Hanover campaign, 1805; the Walcheren expedition, 1809, and throughout the Peninsular War. Appointed major-general, 1830; lieutenant-general, 1841. Administered the government of Canada after the death of Sydenham, 1841. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Coats Island. South-east of Southampton Island, Hudson Bay. Named after Captain W. Coats of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who made many voyages to Hudson Bay between 1727 and 1751. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Cobb, Sylvanus (1709-1762). A native of Plymouth, Mass. Served in the expedition against Louisbourg, 1745. For some years engaged in the coast defence of Nova Scotia. Served at the second siege of Louisbourg under Amherst and Boscawen. Removed to Liverpool, Nova Scotia. Died of the plague at the siege of Havana, 1762. Bib.: Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Cochrane, Thomas (1777-1804). Born in Nova Scotia. A member of the English bar. Chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island, 1801; judge of the King’s Bench of Upper Canada, 1804. Drowned in wreck of the Speedy, while on his way to hold court. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Cockburn, James (1819-1883). Born in Berwick-on-Tweed, England. Came to Canada, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1846. Practised his profession at Cobourg. Represented West Northumberland in the Assembly, 1861-1867; solicitor-general for Upper Canada, 1864-1867. A delegate to the Quebec Conference. After Confederation sat in the House of Commons for West Northumberland, 1867-1874, and during that time was Speaker of the House. Last Speaker to exercise the privilege of addressing the governor-general on measures of the session, 1869. Again elected to the House of Commons, 1878, and retained his seat until 1881, when he retired to accept the chairmanship of the commission on the consolidation of the statutes of Canada. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Cocking, Mathew. An explorer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who went inland from York Factory, on Hudson Bay, to the country of the Blackfeet, in 1772-1773. On his return from this journey, he was sent again to the Saskatchewan to build Cumberland House, accompanying Samuel Hearne. Cocking was in charge there in 1775 when Alexander Henry visited the post. Bib.: Burpee, An Adventurer from Hudson Bay (R. S. C. Trans., 1908).

Coffin, William Foster (1808-1878). Born in Bath, England. Came to Quebec with his father, an army officer, 1813. Returned to England, 1815, and until 1824 was a student at Eton. Came back to Canada, 1830. Called to the bar, 1835. Took part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. Joint sheriff of Montreal, 1840-1851. Appointed commissioner of ordnance lands, 1856, and one of the Intercolonial Railway commissioners, 1868. Held many important offices under the government of Canada and in the militia. Bib.: Works: History of the War of 1812; Three Chapters on a Triple Project; Thoughts on Defence from a Canadian Point of View; Quirks of Diplomacy. For biog., see Morgan, Annual Register, 1878.

Coke, Sir John (1563-1644). Sat in Parliament, 1621-1629. In 1629 Charles I appointed him one of the commissioners to confer with the French ambassador as to the restoration of Quebec. Secretary of state, 1625; a commissioner of the treasury, 1635-1636. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Colbert, Jean Baptiste (1619-1683). First minister to Louis XIV, and a very capable and honest statesman. His career, says Professor Colby, was “more intimately bound up with the colonizing of Canada than that of any other minister, Richelieu not excepted.” He created the Company of the West Indies (q.v.), and to a large extent directed the policies of Courcelles, Frontenac, and other colonial administrators. He encouraged the governors in their efforts to keep the ecclesiastical power within bounds. The Mississippi was named Colbert by Frontenac, and for a time Louisiana was called La Colbertie. Bib.: Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Chambers, Biog. Dict.

Colborne, Sir John. See Seaton.

Colby, Charles William (1867-). Born at Stanstead, Quebec. Educated at McGill and Harvard. A.M., Ph.D., D.C.L. Lecturer in English language and history at McGill, 1893-1895. Kingsford professor of history at McGill, 1895-1910. Appointed a member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, 1909. Bib.: The Sources of History; Canadian Types of the Old Régime.

Colebrooke, Sir William Macbean George (1787-1870). After serving in the army, and as political agent in the East, became lieutenant-governor of the Bahamas, 1834-1837; governor of the Leeward Islands, 1837; and in 1841 succeeded Sir John Harvey as lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, where he aroused criticism by appointing his son-in-law provincial secretary. Afterwards governor of Barbados and the Windward Islands, 1848-1856. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Coles, George (1810-1875). Premier of Prince Edward Island in 1851, and again in 1855, and in 1867. A delegate from Prince Edward Island to the Quebec Conference. Bib.: Campbell, Prince Edward Island.

College of New Brunswick. See New Brunswick, University of.

Collins, Francis. Published the Canadian Freeman in 1825. Reported the legislative debates. Convicted of libel; fined and imprisoned. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

Collver, Jabez. Presbyterian minister, the first to come to Upper Canada. Took up land in the county of Norfolk in 1783. Laboured long and zealously in the district. Bib.: Gregg, Presbyterian Church.

Colonial Advocate. Newspaper published at Queenston, in 1824, by William Lyon Mackenzie. Moved to York the following year. In it Mackenzie discussed the public questions of the day with frankness, and at first with moderation. He reported the debates of the Assembly. In 1826 he advocated a Confederation of the North American colonies. Gradually the tone of his criticism of the ruling faction became more caustic, and in 1826 what is described as a “genteel mob” broke into the office of the Advocate, wrecked the printing press and threw the type into the bay. In 1832 the office was again broken into and some of the type destroyed. The newspaper stopped publication in November, 1834. Bib.: Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Colonial Conference, 1894. Opened at Ottawa, June 28th, with Mackenzie Bowell in the chair. Delegates present from the Imperial government, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Cape Colony, and Canada. Resolutions were passed in favour of an Imperial Customs Union, improved steamship communication and a Pacific Cable. Conference adjourned, July 11th. See also Imperial Conference. Bib.: Proceedings of the Colonial Conference, 1894; Ewart, Kingdom of Canada.

Colonial Ministers of England. Secretaries of state for the colonies. The official channel of communication between the government of Canada and the British government. From 1768 they are as follows, with their dates of assuming office: Earl of Hillsborough, 1768; Earl of Dartmouth, 1772; Lord George Sackville Germain, 1776; Welbore Ellis, 1782; Earl of Shelburne, 1782; Lord Grantham, 1782; Thomas Townsend, 1782; Lord North, 1783; Marquess Caermarthen, 1783; Lord Sydney, 1784; William Wyndham Grenville, 1789; Henry Dundas, 1791; Duke of Portland, 1794; Henry Dundas, 1794; Lord Hobart, 1801; Earl Camden, 1804; Viscount Castlereagh, 1805; William Windham, 1806; Viscount Castlereagh, 1807; Earl of Liverpool, 1809; Earl Bathurst, 1812; Viscount Goderich, 1827; William Huskisson, 1827; Sir George Murray, 1828; Viscount Goderich, 1830; Lord Stanley, 1833; Thomas Spring-Rice, 1834; Earl of Aberdeen, 1834; Lord Glenelg, 1835; Marquess of Normanby, 1839; Lord John Russell, 1839; Lord Stanley, 1841; William Ewart Gladstone, 1845; Earl Grey, 1846; Sir John Somerset Pakington, 1852; Duke of Newcastle, 1852; Sir George Grey, 1854; Sidney Herbert, 1855; Lord John Russell, 1855; Sir William Molesworth, 1855; Henry Labouchère, 1855; Lord Stanley, 1858; Sir E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, 1858; Duke of Newcastle, 1859; Edward Cardwell, 1864; Earl of Carnarvon, 1866; Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, 1867; Earl Granville, 1868; Earl of Kimberley, 1870; Earl of Carnarvon, 1874; Sir Michael E. Hicks-Beach, 1878; Earl of Kimberley, 1880; Earl of Derby, 1882; Lord Stanley of Preston, 1885; Earl Granville, 1886; Edward Stanhope, 1886; Baron Knutsford, 1887; Marquess of Ripon, 1892; Joseph Chamberlain, 1895; Alfred Lyttelton, 1903; Earl of Elgin and Kincardine, 1905; Earl of Crewe, 1908; Lewis Harcourt, 1910; Andrew Bonar Law, 1915; W. H. Long, 1916; Viscount Milner, 1919; Winston Spencer Churchill, 1921; Duke of Devonshire, 1922; J. H. Thomas, 1924; L. C. M. S. Amery, 1924. Colonial affairs before 1768 were in the hands of the Council of Plantations or of Trade and Plantations. In 1768 a secretary of state was appointed for American and colonial affairs. In 1782 this office was abolished and colonial matters turned over to the Home department. In 1794 the office of secretary of state for the colonies was combined with that of secretary for war. In 1854 colonial affairs were put under the exclusive charge of a principal secretary of state. In 1925 the office was created of secretary of state for dominion affairs.

Colonial Ministers of France. Ministers of Marine and the Colonies. The official channel of communication between the government of Canada and the French Court. From 1588 to the close of the period of French rule in Canada, they were as follows: Ruzé de Beaulieu, 1588-1613; De Loménie de la Ville-aux-Clercs, 1613-1615; De Loménie de Brienne, 1615-1643; Guénégaud de Plancy, 1643-1662; De Lyonne, 1662-1669; Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 1669-1683; Colbert de Seignelay, 1683-1690; Louis Phélipeaux de Pontchartrain, 1690-1699; Jérôme Comte de Pontchartrain Phélipeaux, 1699-1715; Fleurian d’Armenonville, 1718-1722; Comte de Morville, 1722-1723; Comte de Maurepas, 1723-1749; Comte de Jouy Rouillé, 1749-1754; Machault d’Arnouville, 1754-1757; Peraine de Mauras, 1757-1758; Marquis de Massiac, 1758; Nicolas René Berryer, 1758-1761. From 1715 to 1718 the department of marine and the colonies was administered by the Council of Marine.

Colonization. Bishop Laval deeply interested in question. In 1663 three hundred embarked at La Rochelle for Canada. These were too young and inexperienced, and a better class of settler sent the following year. A system of apprenticeship was established. The Sovereign Council asked for men from the north of France because of their docility and industry. In 1665 the Queen sent out a number of girls, and the same year a number of the disbanded soldiers of the Carignan Regiment came out as settlers. Various companies were chartered from time to time, one of whose principal obligations was the bringing out of settlers to New France, but their promises were generally much better than their performance. Champlain at Quebec, Maisonneuve at Montreal, and De Monts at Port Royal, had made sincere efforts at colonization, and a few statesmen like Talon had developed a consistent policy of immigration, but for the most part the efforts were spasmodic and half-hearted. For many years after the cession of Canada to England, colonization was rather a matter of voluntary effort than government policy. The United Empire Loyalists came to seek an asylum in British territory; the Irish came because they were driven out of their own country by famine; the Scotch because the land policy in the Highlands left them no alternative but emigration. In time each of the British North American colonies adopted a more or less vigorous policy of colonization, and that was continued and expanded by the Dominion. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada.

Coltman, W. B. A merchant of Quebec, and lieutenant-colonel in the militia. Sent by Governor Sherbrooke, 1816, to Red River, to investigate dispute between the Hudson’s Bay and the North West Companies. He returned to Quebec in November, 1817, and made an elaborate report to Governor Sherbrooke on the relations of the two Companies and conditions generally in the western fur country.

Columbia Fur Company. Organized by John Jacob Astor in 1822 to exploit the fur trade on the Pacific Coast. It was recruited largely from the North West Company. See also Astor; Pacific Fur Company.

Columbia River. Rises in Upper Columbia Lake, latitude 50°° 10´, longitude 115° 50´, and flows into the Pacific Ocean. Total length about 1,150 miles. Supposed to be Carver’s “River of Oregon.” Its mouth was discovered by Robert Gray, of Boston, May, 1792, and named by him after his vessel. Entered and explored by Broughton the same year. It was first reached overland by Lewis and Clark, in 1805; and first explored and surveyed throughout its entire length by David Thompson, of the North West Company, 1807-1811. Its principal branch is the Kootenay. See also Gray, Robert; Broughton, W. R.; Lewis and Clark; Thompson, David. Bib.: Thompson, Narrative; Lewis and Clark, Expedition; Cox, Adventures on the Columbia; Ross, Fur Traders; Coues, Henry-Thompson Journals; Kane, Wanderings of an Artist; Symons, Upper Columbia.

Combe, Robert Grierson. Lieutenant, 27th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. On May 3rd, 1917, south of Acheville, he steadied his company under intense fire, and led them through the enemy barrage, reaching the objective with only five men. With great coolness and courage he proceeded to bomb the enemy; then collected small groups of men and captured the objective, together with eighty prisoners. He repeatedly charged the enemy, driving them before him, and, whilst personally leading his bombers, was killed by an enemy sniper.

Commerce. See Trade.

Commercial Union. Complete and entire free trade with the United States, first proposed by Ira Gould, before Montreal Board of Trade, February, 1852. (See Montreal Gazette, February 18-22, 1852). The question was repeatedly discussed in succeeding years, down to 1891, in and out of Parliament, and for a time was adopted by the Liberal party as a trade policy, but abandoned before they came into power in 1896. The supporters of the policy, under the leadership of men like Erastus Wiman, had organized the Commercial Union League. Many business men joined it, discouraged by the long-continued depression of trade. See also Unrestricted Reciprocity; Reciprocity; Zollverein; Smith, Goldwin; Wiman, Erastus. A concise history of the movement will be found in Johnson’s First Things in Canada. Bib.: Canadian Emancipation and Commercial Union; Adam, Handbook of Commercial Union; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald.

Commission des Monuments Historiques. Of the province of Quebec. Established, 1922. Chairman of the commission, Hon. Adélard Turgeon, president of the Legislative Council of Quebec. The other members are: Pierre-Georges Roy, Victor Morin, W. D. Lighthall, E. Z. Massicotte and C. J. Simard. The general purpose of the commission is to conserve “toutes les vielles choses canadiennes d’intérêt historique ou artistique.” The commission published its first report in 1923, accompanied by a voluminous illustrated list in two volumes entitled Les Monuments commémoratifs de la Province de Québec, prepared by Pierre-Georges Roy.

Commission of Conservation. Created by the Conservation Act, 1909, and amending Acts in 1910 and 1913. Its general purpose was both directly and in coöperation with other federal, provincial and local agencies, to conserve the vast natural resources of the Dominion. Sir Clifford Sifton was chairman, James White secretary, and later assistant to the chairman. There was a large and influential membership representing all sections of the country and a wide variety of expert knowledge. The commission published a number of valuable reports and other documents. It was abolished in 1921.

Commission on Public Records. Appointed, 1912, and consisted of Sir Joseph Pope, E. F. Jarvis and A. G. Doughty. To investigate into and report upon the state of the records of the different departments of the government of Canada. Reported in 1914. Found very inadequate facilities for safeguarding valuable public records in the various departments. Resulted in a very large number of documents of historical interest being transferred to the public archives.

Commissions. See International Boundary Commission; International Joint Commission; International Waterways Commission; International Joint High Commission; Commission of Conservation; Commission on Public Records; Commission des Monuments Historiques; Historic Sites and Monuments Board.

Company of Canada (Merchant Adventurers of Canada). Organized by David Kirke, and chartered by Charles I, to exploit the fur trade of the St. Lawrence. The restoration of Canada to France in 1632 brought the operations of Kirke, Sir William Alexander, and their associates to an untimely end. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Company of De Caën. Organized by William de Caën and his nephew, Emery, merchants of Rouen. Monopoly granted the company on usual terms as to settlement, missionaries, etc., 1621. Absorbed Champlain’s Company, 1622, and the united Companies carried on trade until 1633. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Company of New France (Compagnie des Cent-Associés). Established, 1627, by Cardinal Richelieu, on the advice of Isaac de Razilly. A monopoly of fifteen years was granted, with full ownership of the entire valley of the St. Lawrence, in return for which the Company was to take out three hundred colonists every year up to 1643. No very serious effort was made to carry out this obligation, although the Company continued to enjoy its monopoly until 1663. The Company sent out four vessels in 1628 with provisions, munitions and a few settlers, but the little fleet was captured by David Kirke. The Company also bore the expense of some of the Jesuit mission stations; but it soon got into financial difficulties, and in the end was not reluctant to surrender its charter to the king. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Company of Rouen and St. Malo (Champlain’s Company). Established at the instance of Champlain, in 1614. The shares were divided among the merchants of Rouen and St. Malo. The terms of their charter required the Company to bring out colonists, but they did not take this obligation very seriously. They did, however, make one notable addition to the population of New France, for in the spring of 1617 they brought out Louis Hébert and his family. Hébert’s experience as a colonist was not such as to encourage others to follow his example. The Company’s monopoly was cancelled in 1620. Bib.: Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Company of the Colony. Organized in Montreal in 1700 to secure the monopoly of the western fur trade. Became insolvent a few years later, and in 1705 by royal command they surrendered the trade to Cadillac, who had been one of the associates. See Wis. Hist. Coll., xvi; Canadian Archives Report, 1899; Burton, Cadillac, 17-20. Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin, mentions another company of the same name, organized in 1645 by a group of local merchants in Canada, which obtained valuable concessions from the Company of New France, and in return paid the latter company one-fourth of their gross receipts. The company flourished until 1650, when the destruction of the Huron settlements led to its insolvency and final dissolution.

Company of the West. Later known as La Compagnie des Indes. Also called the Mississippi Company. Organized by the famous Scotch speculator, John Law, and chartered, 1717. Granted the fur trading monopoly of Louisiana, and the right to buy at a fixed price the beaver of Canada for twenty-five years. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Company of the West Indies (Compagnie des Indes Occidentales). Chartered by Louis XIV, 1664, following the cancellation of the charter of the Company of New France. Its field of operations was enormous, covering the west coast of Africa, the east coast of South America from the Amazon to the Orinoco, Canada, Acadia, and Newfoundland. The Christianization of the native tribes was given as the principal object of the Company, commerce being of only secondary importance. Despite its many privileges, and the readiness with which its stock was subscribed, it did not prosper, and by 1672 was hopelessly in debt. Three years later its charter was revoked, so far as Canada was concerned. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Old Régime.

Concomly. A very shrewd, one-eyed savage, chief of the Chinook Indians near the mouth of the Columbia, who took an active part in the little drama of politics and the fur trade, in which the other actors were the representatives of John Jacob Astor and the Columbia Fur Company, and the North West Company. Concomly’s daughter married Duncan McDougall, one of the leading fur traders. Bib.: Coues, Henry-Thompson Journals; Irving, Astoria; Cox, Adventures on the Columbia.

Condé, Prince Henri de (1588-1646). In 1613 he sent out three vessels to trade on the St. Lawrence. The king had made him lieutenant-general of New France in 1612, and Champlain’s Company had to pay him a large salary as one of its obligations. Having conspired against the queen regent he was imprisoned, and the Maréchal de Thémines became temporarily viceroy in his place. Condé was restored and retained the office until 1620. Bib.: Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Confederation. George Johnson, in his First Things in Canada gives in detail the genesis of the idea of a confederation of the various provinces or colonies of British North America, which he traces back to Sir Francis Nicholson’s proposal of 1690. That, however, related not to what is now Canada, but to the then British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard. So far as Canada is concerned, various schemes were put forward at various times by Chief-Justice Sewell, the Duke of Kent, R. J. Uniacke, Robert Gourlay, Bishop Strachan, William Lyon Mackenzie, Lord Durham, George R. Young, Major Warburton, Henry Sherwood, James W. Johnstone, P. S. Hamilton, Joseph Howe, A. T. Galt, and many others. The first definite step in the movement looking towards the union of the British North American colonies, was the Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Delegates from the three Maritime Provinces met to consider the union of those provinces. At the Conference, delegates from Canada (constituting what are now the provinces of Ontario and Quebec) appeared, and urged the broadening of the discussion to cover all the provinces. Out of this meeting grew the Quebec Conference of the same year, attended by delegates from Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland; the two latter subsequently withdrew from the movement. The Quebec Conference drew up a series of resolutions, which were made the basis of the final legislation. In 1866 delegates from the provinces met at the Westminster Hotel in London, and framed the British North America Act. The Act was passed by the Imperial Parliament, and received the queen’s assent, March, 1867. It was proclaimed throughout the new Dominion of Canada, July 1st, 1867. Manitoba was created a province, July 15th, 1870. British Columbia joined the union, July 20th, 1871; and Prince Edward Island, July 1st, 1873. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created September 1st, 1905. See also Charlottetown Conference; Quebec Conference; Westminster Conference; Macdonald; Tupper; Brown; Galt; Howe; Cartier. Bib.: Whelan, Union of the British Provinces; Cauchon, Union of British North American Provinces; Howe, Organization of the Empire; McGee, Two Speeches on Union of the Provinces; Hamilton, Union of the Colonies of British North America; Pope, Confederation Documents; Rawlings, Confederation of the British North American Provinces; Parliamentary Debates on Confederation, 1865; Bourinot, Constitutional History of Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Borden, Canadian Constitutional Studies; Colquhoun, Fathers of Confederation; Kennedy, The Constitution of Canada; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents; Memoirs of Ralph Vansittart; Gray, Confederation; Keith, Responsible Government in the Dominion; Munro, Constitution of Canada; Hammond, Confederation and its Leaders. References to pamphlet and other material on this subject will be found in Johnson, First Things in Canada.

Congress, United States. Published and circulated an address to the French Canadians in 1774, a queer mixture of cajolery and threats, designed to win them to the cause of the revolting colonies. Sent a commission to Canada in 1776 to examine the military situation and probe the mind of the habitant. Its secret agents penetrated every part of Canada in 1778, securing information and spreading sedition. One of its plans was to establish a French newspaper in Montreal, with Mesplet as editor, but this was abandoned when the American army retreated from the country. Bib.: Lucas, History of Canada.

Connaught, H. R. H. Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of (1850-). Succeeded Earl Grey as governor-general of Canada, 1911-1916. His term of office was marked by the Imperial Conference in London; the defeat of the Laurier government and the coming into office of Robert L. Borden; loss of the steamship Titanic; creation of Dominions Royal Commission; extension of the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba; trade agreement with the West Indies; death of Lord Strathcona; loss of Empress of Ireland; outbreak of war with Germany; sailing of the first Canadian contingent; Canadian war loans; destruction by fire of the houses of parliament at Ottawa; battles of Ypres, St. Julien, Festubert, Givenchy, St. Eloi and Sanctuary Wood. One of the Duke’s last public acts in Canada was the laying of the corner-stone of the new parliament buildings.

Connell, Charles. As postmaster-general of New Brunswick he won fame of a sort by having a provincial five-cent postage stamp made in 1860 with his own effigy in place of the queen’s. It was promptly recalled, but not before a few stamps had got into circulation. The Connell stamp is now among the rarities of philately. Connell was subjected to a great deal of ridicule and had to resign. In 1865 elected for Carleton county, and became a member of the Mitchell government the same year. Bib.: Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

Connolly, Thomas Louis (1815-1876). Born in County Cork, Ireland; studied for the church; came to Canada; Roman Catholic bishop of Fredericton, 1852; consecrated archbishop of Halifax, 1859. A warm personal friend of Thomas D’Arcy McGee, and a strong supporter of Confederation.

Connor, George Skeffington. Born in Ireland. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Came to Canada, 1832, with William Hume Blake. Settled on a farm near Lake Simcoe. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1842. Sat in the Assembly as a Reformer, 1859-1862; judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1863. Died in Toronto, 1863. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

Conolly, William. A chief factor in the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1825. He succeeded John Stuart in charge of the New Caledonia department. He married a native wife, and his beautiful and accomplished daughters became the wives of Sir James Douglas and another leader of the fur trade. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Conseil Souverain. See Sovereign Council.

Conservative Party. It is difficult to fix any precise date for the adoption in Canada of this name for what had previously been known as the Tory party or the Tories. In England it came into general use about the middle of the nineteenth century, but never altogether supplanted the older name. In Canada it was used at about the same time, and very rapidly supplanted the old name, perhaps because of the changing point-of-view of its adherents to whom what had once been regarded as Tory principles were no longer acceptable. While it inherited some of the traditions of its predecessor, its point of view was rather that of a growing, ambitious and self-conscious community than of a weak colony. It began to look to the future rather than to the past. With its early history are associated the names of such men as Macdonald, Tupper, Galt, Cartier, Tilley, McGee, and Campbell. See also Tory Party; Liberal-Conservative Party. Bib.: Pope, Sir John Macdonald; Boyd, Sir Georges Étienne-Cartier; Tupper, Recollections of Sixty Years; Skelton, Sir Alexander Galt; Hannay, Sir Leonard Tilley; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia; Lewis, Canada under Macdonald, 1878-1891, and Four Premiers, 1891-1896, in Canada and its Provinces, vol. vi; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Constitutional Act, 1791. The Act was designed to harmonize the conflicting interests of French and English by dividing Quebec into two provinces—Upper and Lower Canada—thereby giving to each a larger control of its own local affairs. It established in each province a Legislative Council, appointed by the crown for life, and a Legislative Assembly, elected by the people. See other constitutional Acts: Quebec Act, 1774; Union Act, 1840; British North America Act, 1867. Bib.: Bourinot, Parliamentary Procedure and Government and Manual of the Constitutional History of Canada; Houston, Canadian Constitutional Documents; Dominion Archives Report, 1890; Watson, Constitutional History of Canada; Durham, Report; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Kingsford, History of Canada; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents of Canada, 1759-1791; Doughty and McArthur, Constitutional Documents of Canada, 1791-1818.

Constitutional Associations. Established in Quebec and Montreal in 1838 by the English element for the purpose of maintaining British connection, and securing the reunion of Upper and Lower Canada. Delegates were sent to Upper Canada to urge coöperation and also to England to press their views upon the British government.

Constitutional Reform Society. Organized in Upper Canada in 1836. William Baldwin was president and Francis Hincks secretary. Its programme called for the establishment of responsible government and the abolition of the Rectories established by Sir John Colborne out of the Clergy Reserves.

Contrecœur. See Pécaudy de Contrecœur.

Cook, Captain James (1728-1779). Served in Canada during siege of Quebec, 1759. Discovered New Zealand, 1769, and New South Wales, 1770. In his famous voyage of 1776-1778, explored the north-west coast of America. The object of this voyage was partly exploration and partly to safeguard England’s interests in the North Pacific, menaced by both Spain and Russia. The discovery of the North-West passage was the purpose of Cook as it had been of many earlier navigators, and was to be of others yet to come. For the discovery of this passage the British Admiralty had offered a prize of twenty thousand pounds. He first sighted the coast in lat. 44° north, was driven out to sea, and returned to the coast at 49° 30´, Nootka Sound. Continuing north he discovered and named Prince William Sound and Cook’s Inlet, visited Unalaska, and sailed up through Bering Strait into the Arctic. On the return voyage the following year, he was murdered by the natives of Owhyhee or Hawaii, in the Sandwich Islands. Bib.: Voyage to the Pacific Ocean. For biog., see Besant, Captain Cook; Laut, Vikings of the Pacific; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Cook River. Known to-day as Cook Inlet, on the coast of Alaska. Discovered by Captain James Cook on his last voyage, 1777, and named after him. Cape Cook, Vancouver Island, was also named after the great navigator, by Captain George H. Richards, in 1860.

Cook’s Mills. An engagement in the War of 1812-1814. October 13th, 1814, Izard, the American general, having moved across the Niagara near Black Rock, with 6,000 men, marched down stream toward Chippewa. On the 19th he sent a brigade to Cook’s Mills, about twelve miles inland from Chippewa, where there was a heavy skirmish in which the Glengarries on the British side did good work. The following day Izard fell back, blew up the fortifications at Fort Erie, and retreated to his own side of the river. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Coote’s Paradise. See Hamilton.

Copper Mines. Prehistoric workings have been found on Isle Royale and on both the south and north shores of Lake Superior, as well as thousands of copper artifacts, implements and ornaments of Indian workmanship. Brûlé, Radisson, and other early travellers, mention copper mines and copper ornaments and nuggets. Father Allouez made an investigation in 1665 and reported a number of large deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior. La Tourette, brother of Du Lhut, brought a large nugget from the west in 1687. Lahontan, Le Sueur, and others reported on the subject. La Ronde, in 1734, with St. Pierre, began to develop the Superior mines, using a little bark they had built at Sault Ste. Marie for transportation. On the banks of Ontonagon river he found the great copper mass which many years later was taken to Washington and now rests in the Smithsonian Institute. Miners were brought out and the venture prospered for a time, but trouble with the Indians brought it to an untimely end. In 1768 Alexander Henry with several associates tried to revive the industry, but disaster followed and the attempt was abandoned. See Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin. Also Hearne’s Journey for the attempt to mine copper on the Arctic coast.

Coppermine River. Rises in a small lake, a little west of long. 110° and south of lat. 66°, and after a course of 525 miles flows into Coronation Gulf, on the Arctic coast of Canada. It was discovered by Samuel Hearne, 1771; and subsequently visited by Sir John Franklin, 1821; Sir John Richardson, 1848; and later travellers. See Hearne. Bib.: Hearne, Journey from Prince of Wales Fort to the Frozen Ocean; Franklin, Journey to the Polar Sea; Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition; Atlas of Canada.

Coppins, Frederick George. Corporal, 8th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. During an attack at Beaufort Wood, August 9th, 1918, his platoon came unexpectedly under fire of numerous machine-guns, and as it was impossible either to advance or retire and there was no cover, they must be annihilated unless the guns could be silenced immediately. Calling four men to follow him, he rushed forward in the face of intense machine-gun fire. His comrades were killed and he was wounded. Nevertheless he reached the hostile machine-guns, and killed or captured the crews single-handed.

Copyright. The first granted in Canada was in 1841, for Alexander Davidson’s Canadian Spelling Book; the second, for Bridges’ Boys’ Own Book; and the third for Richardson’s War of 1812. These were under the provisions of the Imperial Copyright Act. The first Canadian copyright law was enacted in 1850. The Act of 1875 made it a condition for obtaining copyright in Canada that the work should be printed and published or reprinted and republished in Canada contemporaneously or subsequently to the publication or production elsewhere. Further legislation amended the law in various ways. In 1921 an amending Act was passed designed to bring the Canadian law into harmony with the Berne Convention. Amended 1924.

Coquart, Claude Godefroy (1706-1765). Jesuit missionary. Came to Canada, 1738. Spent three years at Quebec. Accompanied La Vérendrye on his western journey in 1741, but got no farther than Michilimackinac, where he was, 1741-1744. His letter, quoted by Margry, in Découvertes et établissements des Français dans l’ouest, throws an interesting light on La Vérendrye’s explorations. Wintered at Fort la Reine, 1744-1745. In charge of Saguenay mission, 1746-1751. For a short time in Acadia after the British conquest. Died in Chicoutimi. Bib.: Wis. His. Coll., xvii and xviii.

Corn Laws. Certain Acts of the British Parliament relating to the exportation and importation of grain and particularly wheat. The Act of 1773 encouraged the importation of foreign wheat. It was repealed in 1791 and importation discouraged. Other legislation followed in 1815 and 1828. In 1836 an agitation began for the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the Anti-Corn League was organized, which eventually led to the adoption of free trade. In 1843 a substantial preference was granted to Canadian wheat in the English market. This included flour and stimulated milling in Canada. The Act of 1846 repealed the Corn Laws and wiped out the preference. Elgin’s view was that Canada was injured not so much by the adoption of free trade as by her dependence on Imperial tariff legislation. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown.

Cornwall Canal. Connects the navigable stretch of the St. Lawrence at Dickinson’s Landing with Cornwall, around the Long Sault Rapids. It is eleven and one-quarter miles long with six locks. From the head of the Soulanges Canal there is a stretch of thirty-one miles of navigable water to the Long Sault rapids. Work commenced on the canal in 1834. The Rebellion of 1837-1838 interfered with its completion, which did not take place until 1843. It then had a depth of nine feet of water. Subsequently enlarged and deepened to fourteen feet in 1902. Bib.: Holgate, The Upper St. Lawrence River; Keefer, Canals of Canada; Rhéaume, Origin of Cornwall and Williamsburg Canals (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc. of Ottawa Trans.).

Cornwallis, Charles, first Marquis (1738-1805). Served in American Revolutionary War; won victory at Camden over Gates, 1780, and in 1781 defeated Greene at Guildford. In 1781 hemmed in at Yorktown between the American army and the French fleet, and forced to surrender. Governor-general and commander-in-chief of Bengal, 1786-1893. Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1798; British plenipotentiary to negotiate peace of Amiens, 1801. Five years later again returned to India as governor-general, and died at Ghazeepore. Bib.: Cornwallis, Despatches; Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Johnston, Yorktown Campaign; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Cornwallis, Edward. Born, 1712. Member of the British House of Commons for Eyre, 1749. Appointed governor of Nova Scotia, 1749. Sailed from England with 2,576 emigrants and on July 2nd, 1749, reached the harbour of Chebucto, the site of the present city of Halifax. His administration marked by severe measures against the discontented Acadians. Returned to England, 1752. Elected to the House of Commons for Westminster, 1753; major-general, 1759; subsequently governor of Gibraltar. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Murdoch, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Cornwallis Island. Between North Devon and Bathurst Islands in the Arctic Archipelago. Named by Parry in 1819 after Admiral Sir William Cornwallis (1744-1819), under whom he had served in the Channel fleet. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Corvée. An ancient French custom, introduced into New France, by which men were compelled to work without pay on roads and other public works. Used to some extent after the cession of Canada, in the transport of provisions for the upper posts, improving the roads, etc., but with this important difference that the forced labour was paid for.

Cosmos, Amor de. Born in Windsor, N. S. Editor of British Colonist, founded 1858 in Victoria. He was a bitter opponent of Sir James Douglas. Advocated the entry of British Columbia into the Dominion. Premier of British Columbia, 1872-1874. He had been born with a somewhat prosaic name, Smith, to which his parents had added another equally uninspiring. Dissatisfied with both, he had an Act put through the Canadian Parliament changing his names to the rather singular combination given above. Bib.: Begg, History of British Columbia.

Costigan, John (1835-1916). Born at St. Nicholas, Quebec. Represented Victoria county, New Brunswick, in the local Legislature, 1861-1866. Sat for the same county in the House of Commons, 1867-1904. Minister of inland revenue, 1882-1892; secretary of state, 1892-1894; minister of marine and fisheries, 1894-1896. Called to the Senate, 1907. He was a strong believer in Home Rule for Ireland, and on several occasions brought resolutions before the Canadian House of Commons relating thereto. Favoured disallowance of the New Brunswick law abolishing separate schools. A delegate to the Irish National Convention in Dublin in 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Canadian Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Coulon de Villiers, Louis (1710-1757). Stationed at Fort St. Joseph, 1729-1731; and at Green Bay, 1733. Accompanied Longueuil in the Chickasaw expedition of 1739. In Acadia, 1746. With Céloron on the Ohio, 1749. Stationed at Fort Miami, 1750-1753, and led a detachment of troops to Fort Duquesne in 1754. George Washington surrendered to him at Fort Necessity. Commanded at Niagara, 1755, and was present at the capture of Oswego, 1756. Also at Fort William Henry. Awarded the Cross of St. Louis. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Council. See Legislative Council; Executive Council; Sovereign Council.

Council of Assiniboia. Appointed by the Hudson’s Bay Company for the government of the colonists in their territory. The first meeting was held February 12th, 1835, with Sir George Simpson as president. Bishop Taché, Alexander Christie, Alexander Ross, Cuthbert Grant, and ten others formed the Council. Among other useful work, it organized a volunteer corps for defensive and police purposes; divided the settlements into four districts with a magistrate for each; and made provision for a public building. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West; Bryce, Manitoba; Hargrave, Red River; Ross, Red River Settlement.

Counties of New Brunswick. Albert, in honour of the Prince Consort; Carleton, after Thomas Carleton, first lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick; Charlotte, after Queen Charlotte, consort of George III; Gloucester, probably after Mary, Duchess of Gloucester, daughter of George III; Kent, in memory of the Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria; Kings, as an expression of loyalty to the king, George III; Madawaska, from the Maliseet Med-a-wes-kaka, said by Rand to mean “where one river enters another;” Northumberland, after the county of that name in England; Queens, as an expression of loyalty; Restigouche, from the Micmac Lust-a-gooch, meaning uncertain, suggested versions are “five-fingered river,” “river branching like the hand,” “big river,” “broad river”; Saint John, from the river which was named by De Monts and Champlain because they reached it on the day of St. John the Baptist; Sunbury, possibly after a village near London; Victoria, in honour of Queen Victoria; Westmorland, after the English county; York, after the Duke of York, eldest son of George III. Bib.: Ganong, Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick (R. S. C., 1896).

Counties of Nova Scotia. Annapolis, in honour of Queen Anne; Antigonish, according to Dr. Rand, from the Micmac word meaning “where branches are torn off the trees by bears getting beech-nuts;” Cape Breton, probably from the Breton fishermen who frequented its shores in the early days; Colchester, after the English town of that name; Cumberland, in honour of the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II; Digby, in honour of Admiral Robert Digby; Guysborough, after Sir Guy Carleton; Halifax, after the Earl of Halifax; Hants, an abbreviation of the name of the English county Hampshire; Inverness, probably after the Scotch county; Kings, as an expression of loyalty to the monarchy; Lunenburg, after Luneburg in Hanover; Pictou, from a Micmac word said to mean “big harbour;” Queens, as an expression of loyalty; Richmond, named for the Duke of Richmond; Shelburne, in honour of the Earl of Shelburne; Victoria, in honour of the queen; Yarmouth, probably after the Earl of Yarmouth. Bib.: Place Names of Nova Scotia.

Counties of Ontario. Stormont, named after David Murray, seventh Viscount Stormont (1727-1796); Dundas, after Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville (1741-1811); Grenville, after William Wyndham Grenville (1759-1834); Leeds, after Francis Godolphin Osborne, fifth Duke of Leeds; Prescott, after Major-General Robert Prescott (1725-1816); Russell, after Peter Russell, who administered the government of Upper Canada, 1796-1799; Carleton, after Sir Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester (1724-1808); Lanark, after the town of Lanark, Scotland; Renfrew, after Renfrewshire, Scotland; Frontenac, after Count de Frontenac (1620-1698); Addington, after Henry Addington, Viscount Sidmouth (1755-1844); Lennox, after Charles Lennox, third Duke of Richmond (1735-1806); Prince Edward, after Prince Edward Augustus fourth son of George III and father of Queen Victoria (1767-1820); Hastings, after Francis Rawdon Hastings (1724-1826); Northumberland, after the English county of that name; Peterborough, after the town of Peterborough in that county, the town being named after Colonel Peter Robinson, brother of Sir John Beverley Robinson; Durham, after the county of the same name in England; Victoria, after Queen Victoria; Ontario, after Lake Ontario; York, after the English county of Yorkshire; Simcoe, after John Graves Simcoe; Peel, after Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850); Dufferin, after the governor-general of that name; Halton, after Major William Halton, secretary to Lieutenant-Governor Gore; Wellington, after the Duke of Wellington (1769-1851); Waterloo, after the famous battle; Wentworth, after Sir John Wentworth, governor of Nova Scotia; Lincoln, after Lincolnshire, England; Welland, name of Chippawa creek changed to Welland river, after stream of that name in Lincolnshire, and name of county followed; Haldimand, after Sir Frederick Haldimand (1718-1791); Brant, after Joseph Brant (1742-1807); Norfolk, after the English county of that name; Oxford, after the English city; Elgin, after the Earl of Elgin, governor-general; Middlesex, after the English county; Kent, after the English county; Lambton, after John George Lambton, Earl of Durham (1792-1840); Essex, after the English county; Perth, after the Ontario town of Perth, which in turn was named after Perth, Scotland; Huron, after Lake Huron; Bruce, after James Bruce, Earl of Elgin; Grey, after Earl Grey (1764-1845); Haliburton, after Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796-1865); Muskoka, after a chief of the Chippawa tribe; Parry Sound, name given originally by Captain Bayfield to the sound, then to the town, then to the county, after Parry Sound in the Arctic, which got its name from Sir William Edward Parry, the Arctic explorer; Nipissing, from Lake Nipissing; Manitoulin, a corruption of an Indian word for Great Spirit. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Counties of Prince Edward Island. The three counties of Kings, Queens and Prince were obviously named in honour of the royal family. It will be noted that each of the three maritime provinces has a Kings county and a Queens county. The dominating element in the three colonies at the time these counties were named was the United Empire Loyalist, and in view of what had taken place in the other colonies on the Atlantic seaboard, it was an obvious and natural gesture of loyalty to so name these new settlements in the colonies that remained British.

Counties of Quebec. Abitibi, from the Algonkin band of Indians; Argenteuil, from the seigniory which was named after the French town of that name; Arthabaska, from an Indian word meaning “place where there are reeds;” Bagot, after Sir Charles Bagot (1741-1843); Beauce, after a district of the same name in France; Beauharnois, after the seigniory granted to the Marquis Charles de Beauharnois in 1729; Bellechasse, after the islands of the same name, called by Champlain “Isles de Chasse;” and later known as “Islets de Bellechasse;” Berthier, after the seigniory of that name, granted to Alexandre Berthier in 1672; Bonaventure, after the island of that name, origin uncertain but probably given by Champlain; Brome, after a village in Suffolk, England; Chambly, after the seigniory of that name, granted to Jacques de Chambly in 1672; Champlain, after Samuel Champlain; Charlevoix, after the historian, Charlevoix; Chateauguay, after the seigniory granted to Charles Le Moyne in 1673, and named by him after Châteauguay in France; Chicoutimi, an Indian name signifying “farther on it is still deep;” Compton, probably after the Marquess Townshend (1753-1811), one of whose titles was Lord Compton; Deux-Montagnes, after the seigniory of that name, which was called after two conspicuous mountains therein; Dorchester, after Lord Dorchester; Drummond, after Sir George Drummond (1772-1854); Frontenac, after Count de Frontenac; Gaspé, the name goes back to 1542, and is said to be derived from a Micmac name signifying end or extremity; Hochelaga, after the ancient Indian town on the island of Montreal; Hull, after the English city of that name; Huntingdon, after the English county; Iberville, after the seigniory granted to Pierre Le Moyne Sieur de Iberville; Iles-de-la-Madeleine, after Madeleine Fontaine, wife of François Doublet, to whom they were granted in 1663; Jacques-Cartier, after the explorer; Joliette, after the seigniory granted to Louis Joliet in 1697; Kamouraska, Indian name meaning “where there are rushes on the other side of the river;” Labelle, after Rev. F. X. A. Labelle; Lac-St.-Jean, after St. John the Baptist; Laprairie, after the seigniory so named because much of it was prairie land; L’Assomption, after the Feast of the Assumption; Laval, after Bishop Laval; Lévis, after General Lévis, second in command to Montcalm; L’Islet, after the seigniory granted in 1677 to Geneviéve Couillard, named after a small rocky island near the present village; Lotbinière, after the seigniory granted to Louis-Theandre Chartier de Lotbinière in 1672; Maskinongé, from an Indian name meaning “big pike;” Matane, from an Indian name meaning “beaver pond;” Matapédia, from a Micmac name meaning “river that breaks up into branches;” Mégantic, from an Abnaki name meaning “where they preserve fish;” Missisquoi, from an Abnaki word meaning “the place where flint is found;” Montcalm, after the Marquis de Montcalm; Montmagny, after the governor of that name; Montmorency, after the Due de Montmorency; Napierville, after General Napier Christie Burton; Nicolet, after Jean Nicolet, the explorer; Papineau, after Denis Papineau; Pontiac, after the celebrated Indian chief; Portneuf, probably derived from the French town of that name; Quebec, from an Indian word meaning “strait,” or “narrows;” Richelieu, after Cardinal Richelieu; Richmond, after the Duke of Richmond (1764-1819); Rimouski, from a Micmac name meaning “haunt of dogs;” Rouville, from the seigniory granted to Jean Baptiste Hartel Sieur de Rouville, 1694; Saguenay, from an Indian name meaning “water that flows out;” Shefford, after Shefford, England; Sherbrooke, after Sir John Coape Sherbrooke (1764-1830); Soulanges, after the seigniory granted Pierre Jacques de Joybert de Soulanges, in 1702; Stanstead, after an English village of that name; St. Hyacinthe, after the seigniory acquired by Hyacinthe Simon Delorme in 1753; St. Jean, after the festival of St. John the Baptist; St. Maurice, after Maurice Poulin Sieur de la Fontaine; Témiscamingue, from an Indian name meaning “at the place of the deep dry water;” Témiscouata, from an Indian name meaning “deep lake forming the shores of a river;” Terrebonne, from the seigniory granted to Daulier des Landes, who is said to have named it on account of the fertility of the soil; Vaudreuil, after the Marquis de Vaudreuil; Verchéres, after the seigniory granted to François Jared de Verchéres in 1672; Wolfe, after General Wolfe; Yamaska, from an Indian name meaning “where there is grass at the bottom of the water.” Bib.: White, Place Names in Quebec.

Courcelles, Daniel de Rémy, Sieur de. Governor of Canada, 1665-1672. His tenure of office marked by an unsuccessful expedition against the Iroquois, and a long and acrimonious dispute with Laval and the Jesuits. Described by LeSueur as a judicious and capable administrator. The Marquis de Tracy was viceroy over all the French possessions in America during a portion of the governorship of De Courcelles; and Talon was twice intendant of New France during the same period. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Old Régime; Sulte, Régiment de Carignan (R. S. C., 1902).

Coureurs de bois. Created in the early days of New France by the illiberal policy of the trading companies. Men, unable to earn a living in the settlements, were driven out into the wilderness to trade with the Indians. Gradually this class increased in numbers, adventurous young men being attracted by the freedom from control and the quick profits of traffic with the Indians. The drain on the colony and the demoralization in its life and morals became so serious that determined efforts were made to end the practice, but without success, though the penalty was death. These men, half-white half-Indian by nature, became the backbone of the fur trade, not only in the French period but also after Canada had become British. Hardy, fearless, cheerful, improvident, they added strength and picturesqueness to the fur trading ventures of the North West Company. Bib.: See General Index, R. S. C.; Bancroft, History of the North-West Coast; Parkman, Old Régime; Ross Cox, Adventures on the Columbia; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Munro, The Coureurs-de-bois (Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc., 1923-1924).

Courts of Justice. The Sovereign Council in New France exercised judicial powers, giving judgments in both civil and criminal cases, according to the royal ordinances and the Coutume de Paris. The Council had the power to establish subordinate courts throughout the colony. In the early days of the British régime, the courts of judicature were established by the governor, who also appointed the judges. In course of time courts were established, judges appointed, and laws passed, by the Legislature or the Cabinet. In 1721 a court of judicature was established at Annapolis, Nova Scotia. The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875, and held its first sitting in June, 1876.

Couture, Guillaume. Born in Normandy, 1608. Came to Canada, 1640. Two years later, on the way to the Huron country with Father Jogues (q.v.), captured by the Iroquois, and carried off to their villages, where they were tortured. Couture escaped a worse fate by being adopted into an Iroquois family. In 1661 accompanied Father Dablon (q.v.) on an expedition towards Hudson Bay. Threatened by an Iroquois war party, however, they got no farther than Lake Necouba, and retreated down the Saguenay to Tadoussac. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Cox, Ross. Went to Astoria on the Beaver in 1811-1812 as an employee of the Pacific Fur Company. When Astoria was transferred to the North West Company, joined that organization. Spent five years on the Columbia, and returned to the East overland. His narrative formed one of the principal sources of Irving’s Astoria, and is a valuable account of the fur trade on the Pacific coast and the character of the men engaged in it. Bib.: Adventures on the Columbia River. For biog., see Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Craig, Sir James (1748-1812). Distinguished himself at Lexington and Bunker Hill, in American Revolutionary War. Appointed governor of Jersey, 1793; and governor of the Cape, 1795. Sent to India two years later; and in 1807 governor-general of Canada. He distrusted the French Canadians and they in turn cordially disliked him. Suppressed French newspapers that criticized his policy. Recommended confiscation of the estates of the Sulpicians. Strongly favoured the union of Upper and Lower Canada. In 1809, his views and those of the Assembly being hopelessly at variance, he dissolved the House, and again the following year. Suffering from an incurable disease, he resigned in 1811 and returned to England. He was honest and courageous but, as Bourinot pointed out, he was “incapable of understanding colonial conditions and aspirations, ignorant of the principles and working of representative institutions, and too ready to apply arbitrary methods to the administration of civil affairs.” Bib.: Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dict. Eng. Hist.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada; Edgar, General Brock; DeCelles, Papineau; Cruikshank, Administration of Sir James Craig (R. S. C., 1908).

Cramahé, Hector Theophilus. A Swiss by birth but an officer in the British army. Member of the Executive Council in 1764 under Murray, who sent him to England to explain the difficulties in the way of applying British civil law to the conditions in Quebec. He had been Murray’s secretary. Lieutenant-governor under Carleton, and acted as administrator during the governor’s absence in England, 1770-1774, when the Quebec Act was under consideration. Arnold, in the invasion of 1775, sent him a summons to surrender Quebec, which Cramahé refused to consider. He distrusted the loyalty of the French militia. Had very friendly relations with Haldimand. Made governor of Detroit, 1785. Apparently died about 1788. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Bradley, Lord Dorchester.

Crane, William. Son of Jonathan, a United Empire Loyalist, who settled in New Brunswick, and became a member of the Legislature and Speaker. William was sent as a delegate to England to present the grievances of the New Brunswick Assembly in 1836, and again the following year. Appointed to the Executive Council, 1843, and resigned the same year. Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

Crawford, John Willoughby (1817-1875). Sat in the Legislative Assembly for East Toronto, 1861-1863; represented South Leeds in the House of Commons, 1867-1873; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1873-1875. Died at Government House, Toronto. Bib.: Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Crawley, Edmund Albern (1799-1880). Graduated from King’s College, Windsor; studied law under James W. Johnstone, and called to the bar, 1882. One of the leaders of the Baptist Church in Nova Scotia; entered the ministry; and became the principal founder of Acadia College. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Hill, Forty Years with the Baptist Ministers and Churches of the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Cree Indians. An important Algonquian tribe, formerly ranging throughout what are now the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and north-eastwards to Hudson Bay. First mentioned in Jesuit Relations, 1640, 1661, and 1667, and in the early journals of the Hudson’s Bay Company. They formed an alliance with the Assiniboines, formerly of Siouan stock, and carried their raids against hostile tribes westwards to the Rocky Mountains, and north to the Mackenzie River. In 1776 they numbered about 15,000, but were reduced by smallpox in 1786, and again in 1838. By the end of the nineteenth century they had again regained their former numbers. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Harmon, Journal; Mackenzie, Voyages.

Creighton, John (1794-1878). Born in Nova Scotia. Called to the bar, 1816, and created Q. C. by royal warrant, 1845. Sat in the Legislative Assembly of Nova Scotia, 1830-1850. Called to the Legislative Council, 1859, and elected Speaker, 1875. Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Crémazie, Octave (1827-1879). His life a peculiarly sad one. Having made a failure of his business as a bookseller in Quebec, went to France, and died there in poverty. One of the founders of the Institut Canadien of Quebec; and contributed for some years to the Soirées Canadiennes and other periodicals. His poetical works published, 1882, under the patronage of the Institut Canadien, with an introduction by Abbé Casgrain. Bib.: Œuvres Complètes, Montreal, 1882. For biog., see Casgrain, Biog.; Gagnon, Quelques Notes sur O. Crémazie in Revue Canadienne, vol. 49; also articles in same review by Abbé Casgrain (vol. 31); and by Abbé Degagné (vol. 30).

Crespeuil, Francis de (1638-1702). Jesuit missionary. Born at Arras, France. Came to Quebec, 1670, and was assigned to the Tadoussac mission. For twenty-eight years he laboured among the Montagnais and other tribes of the Saguenay and lower St. Lawrence. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Croak, John Bernard. Private, 13th Battalion, C. E. F. Victoria Cross. On August 8th, 1918, near Amiens, he captured single-handed an enemy machine-gun nest and took the crew prisoners. Shortly afterwards he was severely wounded, but nevertheless dashed forward alone against a very strong point containing several machine-guns. The remainder of his platoon followed, and they captured three machine guns and bayoneted or captured the entire garrison. He was again severely wounded, and died of his wounds.

Croft, Henry Holmes. Born in London, England. Came to Canada in 1842, having been appointed, on the recommendation of Michael Faraday, to the chair of chemistry in King’s College, Toronto, where he remained until 1879. In 1849 he became vice-chancellor, and did much to transform this local college into a great national university. His researches also added largely to the advancement of agricultural chemistry in Canada. Died in Texas. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Crooks, Adam (1827-1885). Son of James Crooks; born at West Flamboro, Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and the University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1851. Contested West Toronto for the Assembly, 1867, but defeated; elected, 1871; defeated in East Toronto, 1875, but shortly afterwards elected for South Oxford. Attorney-general, 1871-1872; provincial treasurer, 1872-1877, to which was added in 1876 the portfolio of education; minister of education, 1877-1883. Retired on account of ill health. Died in Hartford, Conn. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Crooks, James (1778-1860). Born in Scotland. Came to Canada, 1794, and settled at Niagara. Engaged in mercantile life. Commanded a company of militia during the War of 1812-1814. Shortly after the close of the war removed to West Flamboro. Helped in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. For twenty-five years a member of the Legislative Councils of Upper Canada and Canada. Died in West Flamboro. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Crooks, Ramsay (1787-1859). Born at Greenock, Scotland. Came to America with his family and settled on the Canadian side of the Niagara river. Entered the service of the North West Company. In 1807 formed a fur trading partnership at St. Louis with Robert McClellan. In 1811 joined the Pacific Fur Company, and was a member of the overland expedition to Astoria. Reached Astoria May, 1812, and returning arrived at St. Louis April, 1813. He remained in Astor’s employ until 1817, when he became a partner of the American Fur Company, and in 1834 president. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xix.

Crosby, Thomas (1840-1914). As a young man went out from Ontario to the Pacific coast, where for a time he conducted an Indian school at Nanaimo, was sent on a missionary tour among the tribes, taught himself the Indian language, built the first church in the Chilliwack valley, and established missions in the north at Port Simpson, on the Skeena river, on Queen Charlotte Islands, and at various points up the coast. After forty-five years of missionary work he was stricken with paralysis and retired to Vancouver, where he died. Bib.: Maclean, Vanguards of Canada.

Crown Point. West side of Lake Champlain. Fort Frédéric was built there in 1731; rebuilt, 1734; and strengthened, 1742. It was blown up by Bourlamaque, 1759, to prevent its falling into the hands of the British; and the same year Amherst built a fort about two hundred yards west of the site of Fort Frédéric. This fort was captured, 1775, by Ethan Allen’s men; recaptured by Carleton the following year. Under the terms of the treaty of Paris, 1783, Crown Point became American territory. The international boundary crosses the head of Lake Champlain, some distance north of Crown Point. See Arnold; Allen; Abercromby; Montgomery. Bib.: Crockett, History of Lake Champlain; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Crow’s Nest Pass. Discovered in the later sixties by a trapper, Michael Phillips, formerly in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The pass took its name from Crow’s Nest Mountain, which is named Loge des Corbeaux on one of the maps accompanying Palliser’s Report, 1859. The original Cree name, of which these are translations, is Kah-ka-ioo-wut-tshis-tun. The pass was used for many years by the Mounted Police, who made a trail through it from the plains to British Columbia. Toward the end of the last century the Canadian Pacific Railway built a branch line through the pass. Bib.: Dawson, Crow’s Nest Pass (Geol. Survey, 1885); McTavish, The Climb of Crow’s Nest Mountain, in Canadian Alpine Journal, 1907.

Crysler’s Farm. Battle in War of 1812-1814, fought November 11th, 1813. The scene of the fight was near the head of the Long Sault Rapids, on the St. Lawrence. Morrison commanded the British troops, about 800 men, and Boyd the Americans, numbering 1,800, increased during the fight to 2,400. The Americans were driven off the field. Morrison captured 100 men and a gun. The American loss was 300 men; and the British, 200 men. See also War of 1812. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Cumberland House. Hudson’s Bay Company post. On Sturgeon Lake, north side of Saskatchewan river. Built by Samuel Hearne in 1774. Fur traders from Montreal, who afterwards became associated in the North West Company, had built a small establishment on the lake in 1772. The canoe route from the Saskatchewan to the Churchill by way of Frog Portage passed through Sturgeon Lake.

Cunard, Sir Samuel (1787-1865). Born in Halifax. His practical training fitted him for the important rôle he was to fill in the evolution of ocean shipping. Watched closely the early attempts to cross the Atlantic by steam, and when in 1838 the British government invited tenders for carrying the mails between Liverpool, Halifax, and Boston, immediately sailed for England and laid before the Admiralty his carefully-matured plans for a line of steamships. Joseph Howe and Thomas Chandler Haliburton were associated with him in the initiation of this momentous idea. Succeeded in enlisting the support of several big shipping firms in England, and had no difficulty in securing the contract. So originated the Cunard company, which from an initial fleet of four vessels of 1200 tons each and 440 horse-power has grown to its present gigantic proportions. Was one of the owners of the Royal William (q.v.). Made a baronet, 1859. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Johnson, First Things in Canada, under Steam Communication.

Cuoq, Jean-André (1821-1901). Entered the Sulpician order in 1843, and came to Canada two years later. Devoted his life to a minute study of the languages of the Algonquian and Iroquoian tribes, and became one of the leading authorities on the subject. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Bib.: Works: Jugement Erroné de M. Ernest Renan sur Quelques Langues Sauvages de l’Amérique; Livre des Sept Nations; Études Philologiques sur Quelques Langues Sauvages de l’Amérique; Lexique de la Langue Iroquoise; Lexique de la Langue Algonquine, Anote-Kekon. For biog., see Trans. R. S. C., 1902, I, 127-128; Morgan, Can. Men.

Currency. During the French period money was at first very scarce. When the troops were sent out it became more abundant, the officers spending freely and paying in cash. The middle of the seventeenth century money was worth one-fourth more in Canada than in France, and two currencies became recognized, the Canadian franc and the livre tournois or French franc. Seventeen million livres of French paper money was in circulation after the conquest, and was not redeemed until 1768. The British authorities passed an ordinance in 1764 by which the French Louis d’or and crown were kept in circulation. Montgomery tried to use congress paper money in Canada in 1776, with very indifferent success. The farmers and merchants preferred specie. First step for a revision of the currency was taken, 1795, when an Act was passed fixing standard of values. It appears that about this time there were in circulation in Upper Canada such coins as the Johannes and the Moidora of Portugal, and the Spanish doubloon. The penalty for counterfeiting was death. Simcoe found himself embarrassed by the lack of an adequate currency. He suggested a form of paper money, but the scheme did not commend itself to the Home government. Brock arranged with some of the principal merchants in 1812 to issue a special paper currency, which was afterwards redeemed. So-called “army bills” were issued and used between 1812 and 1820. The LaFontaine-Baldwin government introduced the decimal system in 1850. In 1871 an Act was passed by the Dominion Parliament establishing a uniform currency. See Banking; Card Money. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada; Weir, Sixty Years in Canada.

Currie, Sir Arthur William (1875-). Born in Ontario, he went west, taught school in British Columbia, and later was engaged in insurance and real estate. Began his military career in 1897 as a gunner in the 5th Regiment. Canadian Garrison Artillery. Received his commission, 1900, and rose to command of the regiment, 1909. Went overseas in 1914 in command of an infantry brigade. Promoted colonel, 1915, brigadier-general the same year. Commanded his brigade through the battles of Ypres, Festubert, Givenchy. Succeeded to the command of the first Canadian division, 1915; and to that of the Canadian corps, 1917. Promoted major-general, lieutenant-general, and general. Knighted, 1918. On his return to Canada became inspector military forces of Canada. Principal of McGill University, 1920.

Curry, Thomas. One of the first fur traders from Montreal to reach the Saskatchewan, about 1771. Preceded by James Finlay (q.v.). Alexander Mackenzie, in his General History of the Fur Trade, says that Curry with four canoes made his way to the Saskatchewan, and brought back such a rich cargo of furs that he was satisfied never to return to the Indian countries. Cocking (q.v.) of the Hudson’s Bay Company mentions Curry (1772) and says that he “intercepted great part of the York Fort trade this year.” Bib.: Mackenzie, General History of the Fur Trade, in his Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; Burpee, Hendry’s Journal (R. S. C., 1907); Cocking’s Journal (R. S. C., 1908).

Customs. In 1793 an arrangement was made between Upper and Lower Canada as to the division of the revenue derived from customs. As late as 1836 the customs revenue was still collected in New Brunswick by Imperial officials. This applied also to other colonies. Control over customs revenue had been handed over to Lower Canada in 1831. Under the terms of the British North America Act the customs was one of the matters reserved to the Federal government. See also Canada Trade Act.

Cut Knife Hill. About thirty-eight miles west of Battleford. In the Rebellion of 1885, the Indian chief Poundmaker (q.v.) with a large force of Indians was encamped here. To prevent a junction between Poundmaker and Big Bear, Colonel Otter with 325 militia made a forced march and attacked the Indians at Cut Knife Hill. Poundmaker, a shrewd and resourceful leader, took full advantage of his superior position, and almost succeeded in enveloping the little column of whites. Otter managed to extract his men from the trap at the last moment, with the loss of a few men, and retreated to Battleford. The diversion had the effect of preventing the junction of Poundmaker and Big Bear, and discouraging the Indians. See also Riel Rebellion, 1885.

Cuthbert, James. Served in the navy as lieutenant of the flagship at Carthagena in 1721. Entered the 42nd Regiment on its formation. Served at the capture of Louisbourg and the siege of Quebec. Aide-de-camp to Murray. Appointed by Dorchester a member of the first Legislative Council. Captured by the Americans in the invasion of 1775 and sent in irons to Albany. They also burned his manor house.

Cuthbert, James Ross. Son of preceding. An intimate friend of Brock, he formed a volunteer company from the men of his seigniory of Berthier in 1807. Supported Papineau in his agitation on behalf of the French Canadians. He was a member of the Special Council of Lower Canada in 1839, and opposed the union of the Canadas. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Cuvillier, Augustin. Entered public life in 1815 as member for Huntington, which he represented almost continuously up to 1844. Speaker of Assembly, 1841-1844. Died, 1849. In 1828 he had been a delegate from the Assembly of Lower Canada to represent their grievances to the Imperial Government, but he had voted against Papineau’s Ninety-Two Resolutions. He was a man of moderate views. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Dablon, Claude (1619-1697). Born at Dieppe. Educated at Paris and La Flèche; joined Canadian mission, 1655; accompanied Chaumonot to Onondaga territory, where he stayed for three years, then returned to Quebec and remained till 1661, when sent on a mission to Cree tribes in district of Hudson Bay. In 1668 went with Marquette to Algonquian tribes of Lake Superior. One of the founders of the mission at Sault Ste. Marie. In 1770 named superior of Canadian missions and rector of College at Quebec, but did not reach the St. Lawrence till following year; held these positions until August, 1680, and from October 1686 to 1693. Edited the Relations of 1671 and 1672 and compiled others relating to 1673-1679. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Dalhousie, George Ramsay, ninth Earl of (1770-1838). A Scottish peer. Entered the army at an early age and saw service in various parts of the world. From 1812 to 1814 commanded the 7th division of the British army in France and Spain. Received the thanks of Parliament for his services at Waterloo. Raised to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia in 1816. In 1819 became governor-general and commander-in-chief of British North America. Served in this capacity for nine years. He founded the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, and was responsible for the very happy idea of the Wolfe and Montcalm monument at Quebec. Politically he was not so successful. He has been described as a “disciplinarian devoid of diplomacy.” His relations with the French majority in the Legislature, and particularly with Papineau, were far from sympathetic. In 1827 he refused to confirm the election of Papineau as Speaker, and dissolved the Legislature. A storm of public indignation followed, and petitions were sent to England protesting against the governor’s usurpation of authority. Dalhousie was recalled. Largely responsible for the founding of Bytown. From 1829 to 1832 commander-in-chief in the East Indies. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Dict. Eng. Hist.; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Dalhousie University. Halifax. Founded by the Earl of Dalhousie, 1818. Corner-stone of original building laid in 1820. First endowment derived from Castine Fund, resulting from the occupation of Castine, Maine, during the War of 1812-1814. Act of Incorporation passed, 1821. First president elected and classes opened, 1838. University powers conferred 1841. College closed for some years owing to lack of funds for its support. Reorganized, 1863. In 1920 celebrated its centenary by launching a Million Dollar Endowment Fund. Two and a half millions subscribed, including $300,000 from Mrs. E. B. Eddy for Shirreff Hall, a dormitory for girls, to which $350,000 subsequently added; Carnegie and Rockefeller Foundations contributed $500,000 each towards the Medical School. William Dennis of Halifax gave $100,000 to endow a Chair of Government and Political Science. Dalhousie took an active part in the movement, initiated in 1922, for a union of the Maritime universities. The Carnegie Foundation offered to contribute two and a half millions toward the endowment of a Maritime university. Only Dalhousie and King’s had, up to 1925, united. Bib.: Hopkins, Canada, An Ency., vol. 3; MacMechan, The Life of a Little College.

Dallas, A. J. Born in Scotland. Engaged for some years in the China trade. Entered service of Hudson’s Bay Company; chief factor at Fort Victoria, Vancouver Island; succeeded Sir George Simpson as governor of Rupert’s Land, 1862. Married a daughter of Sir James Douglas (q.v.). Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Dalmas, Anthony (1636-1693). Jesuit missionary. Born in Tours, he came to Canada in 1670, and spent several years in the “grim routine of hardship and dangers” of the Tadoussac missions. Joined Father Sylvie at Fort Albany, on James Bay, in 1691. The fort had been captured by Iberville in 1686, and was now in the hands of a small French garrison. Dalmas was murdered by the tool-maker of the garrison in the spring of 1693. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West.

Daly, Sir Dominick (1798-1868). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada, 1825; provincial secretary for Lower Canada, 1827-1840; member of the Special Council of Lower Canada, 1840-1841; provincial secretary of Canada, 1841-1848. His easy and affable personality made him popular with all classes. When the government resigned in 1863, he alone remained to defend Metcalfe, constituting an administration of one. Left Canada, and appointed by the Imperial government lieutenant-governor of Tobago, 1851-1854. Afterwards lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, 1854-1859; and governor of South Australia, 1861-1868. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Davin, The Irishman in Canada.

Daly, John Corry Wilson (1796-1878). Born in Liverpool, England. For some time an assistant surgeon in the navy. Emigrated to the United States, and removed to Hamilton, 1826. Appointed surgeon to the Canada Company, 1827, and settled at Stratford, 1829. Succeeded John Galt (q.v.) as agent of the Canada Company, 1831, and took up his residence at Guelph. In the next year returned to Stratford, where he resided until his death. For many years agent of the Bank of Upper Canada at Stratford.

Daly, Sir Malachy Bowes (1836-1920). Son of Sir Dominick Daly; born in Quebec. Educated at St. Mary’s College, Oscott, England; studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1864. Private secretary to various governors of Nova Scotia. Sat in House of Commons for Halifax, 1878-1887; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1890-1900. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Daly, Thomas Mayne (1852-1911). His father, of the same Christian names, was a member of the old Canadian assembly, and also sat in the House of Commons. The son was born at Stratford, Ontario; studied law and called to the bar, 1876. Removed to Manitoba, 1881, and became the first mayor of Brandon. Represented Selkirk in the House of Commons, 1887-1896. Minister of the interior in the Thompson administration, 1892; resigned, 1896, and went to England and France on a special mission in connection with a reorganization of the Canadian immigration system. Later practised law in Rossland, British Columbia. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Dandurand, Raoul (1861-). Born in Montreal. Graduated from Laval; called to the bar, 1883; Q. C., 1897. Called to the Senate, 1898; Speaker, 1905-1909. Appointed a member of the King administration, 1921, and government leader in the Senate. Took an active part in the inter-parliamentary peace movement. One of the Canadian representatives to the Assembly of the League of Nations, 1924. Elected president of the Assembly, 1925. Bib.: Chambers, Can. Parl. Guide.

Daneau de Muy, Nicolas. Came to Canada, 1685; married Marguerite Boucher, grand-daughter of Pierre Boucher, in 1687; and after serving with distinction in King William’s War, 1689-1697, died on his way to Louisiana to assume the governorship. His son, Jacques-Pierre Daneau de Muy, born, 1695, commanded at River St. Joseph in 1733; served as captain in King George’s War, 1744-1748; was appointed commandant at Detroit, 1755; and died there in 1757. He is described as a “prudent, wise and sedate man, and a very exact officer.” Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Daniel, Antoine (1600-1648). Son of Antoine Daniel, of Dieppe. Entered the Society of Jesus; came to Canada in 1633, and a missionary in Cape Breton that year. In 1634 accompanied Brébeuf to the Huron country, where they laid the beginnings of that ill-fated mission. In 1636 came to Quebec to open the Seminary, which, from very modest beginnings, has since developed into Laval University. Returned to the Huron mission, and in 1648 was murdered by the Iroquois. First of the Huron martyrs. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Daniel, Charles. Son of Antoine Daniel, of Dieppe. Made a notable voyage to New France in 1629, of which he left a graphic narrative. Arriving at Cape Breton that year, with two armed vessels, found Lord Ochiltree, who had joined Sir William Alexander in his colonization schemes, building a fort near Louisbourg. Seized the colonists and carried them off to France. Was himself captured by Kirke. Bib.: Voyage à la Nouvelle France du Capitaine Charles Daniel. For biog., see Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Daulac. See Dollard des Ormeaux.

Daumont. See St. Lusson.

Dauphin Lake. In Manitoba, south of Lake Winnipegosis. Named after the Dauphin of France. Discovered by one of the sons of La Vérendrye in 1741, who built Fort Dauphin that year near the mouth of Mossy river, which discharges the waters of Lake Dauphin into Winnipegosis. J. B. Tyrrell thinks that the site of the fort is probably in the present town of Winnipegosis.

David, Claude (1621-1687). He was by profession a physician, and practised at Three Rivers and later at Cap-de-la-Madeleine. In 1660 he accompanied the expedition of Father René Ménard to the west. He was one of a party of traders who had determined to open up trade with the Ottawas on the south shore of Lake Superior. The Iroquois menace and other difficulties kept them at Chequamegon Bay for three years. Finally, in 1663, the Iroquois having suffered a notable defeat, the traders and their native allies made their way back to the St. Lawrence with a cargo of furs, and reports of the existence of copper on Lake Superior. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

David, Laurent Olivier (1840-). Educated at St. Thérèse College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1864. One of founders, and editor, of L’Opinion Publique, 1870. Represented Montreal East in Quebec Legislature, 1886-1890. Called to the Senate, 1903. Bib.: Works: Biographies et Portraits; Les Héros de Châteauguay; Les Patriotes de 1837-1838; Mes Contemporains; Les Deux Papineau; L’Union des Deux Canadas; Le Drapeau de Carillon; Laurier et Son Temps; Le Clerge Canadien: Sa Mission et Son Œuvre; Souvenirs et Biographies; Mélanges Historiques. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Davidson, John. Commissioner of crown lands in Lower Canada. Appointed by Sydenham to same office after the union. Retired with Draper, and made collector of customs. Bib.: Shortt, Lord Sydenham.

Davies, Sir Louis Henry (1845-1924). Born in Prince Edward Island. Educated at Prince of Wales College; studied law and called to the bar of Prince Edward Island, 1866. Sat in the Assembly, 1872-1879; premier and attorney-general, 1876. Counsel for Great Britain before the International Fisheries Commission at Halifax, 1877. Elected to the House of Commons for Queen’s, 1882; minister of marine and fisheries in the Laurier administration, 1896; one of the joint high commissioners on behalf of Great Britain to settle differences between the United States and Canada, 1898; knighted, 1897; appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1902; became chief-justice, and a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Davin, Nicholas Flood (1843-1901). Born in Ireland. Studied law and called to the English bar, 1868. Served as war correspondent during Franco-Prussian War. Came to Canada, 1872; joined staff of the Globe, and later, the Mail. Called to the Ontario bar, 1874. Established the Regina Leader, 1883. Represented West Assiniboia in Dominion Parliament, 1887-1900. A brilliant but somewhat erratic speaker. Bib.: Works: The Irishman in Canada; Eos, an Epic of the Dawn; Culture and Practical Power; Ireland and the Empire. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Davis, John. Born near Dartmouth, England. Made three voyages in search of a north-west passage. In 1585 he sailed to Greenland and across the strait that now bears his name to Baffin Land, discovering Cumberland Sound. The following year he continued his exploration of Baffin Land. In 1587 he explored Cumberland Sound and sailed down the coast past Frobisher Bay and across the entrance to what later became known as Hudson Strait to a point which he named Cape Chidley. In 1591 he sailed with Cavendish to the South Seas, and subsequently made journeys to the East Indies for the East Indian Company. On his return from one of these expeditions, he was killed by Japanese pirates off the coast of Malacca in 1605. Bib.: Markham, Voyages of John Davis.

Dawson, George Mercer (1849-1901). Son of Sir J. W. Dawson (q.v.). Studied geology and palæontology under Huxley, Ramsay and Etheridge at the Royal School of Mines, London. Geologist and botanist to North American Boundary Commission, 1873-1875. Appointed to staff of Geological Survey, 1875; assistant director, 1883; director, 1895. Carried out many important explorations in the West and added largely to what was known of the geology particularly of the Rocky Mountain region. One of the British commissioners in Bering Sea Arbitration, 1892. Bib.: For his numerous reports and papers on geological and allied subjects, see General Indexes to Geological Survey Reports, 1863-1884, and 1885-1906; and Bibliography of the Royal Society (R. S. C., 1894). For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Dawson, Sir John William (1820-1899). Born at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Educated at Edinburgh University. Accompanied Sir Charles Lyell on his geological explorations in Nova Scotia. Appointed superintendent of education for Nova Scotia, 1850. Principal of McGill University, 1855-1893, and mainly instrumental in building up the institution from a small college to one of the first rank. Elected F. G. S., 1854, and F. R. S., 1862; knighted, 1884. First president of Royal Society of Canada. Author of many books and pamphlets on geology and palæontology. Bib.: Works: Acadian Geology; Story of the Earth and Man; Science and the Bible; Dawn of Life; Origin of the World; Fossil Men; Change of Life in Geological Times; Chain of Life; Egypt and Syria. For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Morgan, Can. Men.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Dawson, Fifty Years of Work in Canada.

Dawson, Simon James. Born in Glengarry, Scotland, and came to Canada when a boy. Studied civil engineering, and was employed by the government in opening up the pine regions of the St. Maurice valley in 1851. Six years later he was given the important task of exploring the country from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, on which he published a comprehensive report. In 1868 he began work on what was afterwards known as the Dawson Route, from Lake Superior to the Lake of the Woods, and in 1870 provided boats and voyageurs to transport Wolseley’s force over this route to the Red river. In 1873 he was a commissioner to conclude a treaty with the Chippewa Indians. Two years later he was elected to the Ontario Legislature for Algoma, and advocated a vigorous colonization roads policy. In 1878 he was elected to the House of Commons for Algoma, being re-elected in 1882 and 1886. Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Day, Charles Dewey (1806-1884). Born in Bennington, Vermont. Came with his parents to Canada, 1812. Called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1827; created Q. C., 1837. Assisted in the prosecution of the insurgents who had been arrested during the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Appointed solicitor-general and called to the Special Council, 1839. Summoned by Sydenham to the Executive Council, 1840, and subsequently elected to the Assembly for the county of Ottawa. Appointed judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1842; transferred to the Superior Court, 1849; resigned, 1862. Acted as commissioner for the codification of the civil laws of Quebec; as representative of Quebec on the Arbitration Commission appointed under the British North America Act to settle the claims of the provinces; and as chairman of the Royal Commission to investigate the charges against the Macdonald government in connection with the granting of the charter to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. Held the office of chancellor of McGill University from 1857 until his death. Died in England. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Dearborn, Henry (1751-1829). Served through the War of the Revolution; accompanied Arnold’s expedition to Canada. Secretary of war, 1801-1809; appointed major-general, 1812, and assigned to command of northern department in War of 1812; captured York, 1813, and Fort George, same year. Minister to Portugal, 1822-1824. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Dease, Peter Warren. In charge of New Caledonia for the Hudson’s Bay Company, succeeding William Connolly. Became a Chief Factor in 1828. In 1839 with Thomas Simpson explored the Arctic coast of Canada from the farthest west point reached by Franklin to the most easterly point reached by Elson in 1826, and filled the gap between Points Turnagain and Ogle. Also part of the southern coasts of Victoria Land and King William Land. Finally settled the question as to the existence of a water channel between these great Arctic islands and the mainland. Dease lake and Dease river, a branch of the Liard, in northern British Columbia, were named after him by J. McLeod of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1834. Dease river flowing into Great Bear lake was also named after the explorer, as well as Dease bay on that lake. Bib.: Narrative of Discoveries on the North Coast of America; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Debartzch, P. D. Engaged in journalism. First elected to the Assembly of Lower Canada, 1810; member of the Legislative Council, 1815. Opposed the union of the Canadas. At one time a warm friend of Papineau, but afterwards withdrew his support when the attitude of the popular leader became extreme. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

DeCelles, Alfred Duclos (1844-1925). Educated at Laval University. Engaged in journalism, and became editor-in-chief of La Minerve, and subsequently of L’Opinion Publique. In 1880 appointed assistant librarian of Parliament, and in 1886 general librarian. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1884. Made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, 1904; C. M. G., 1907. Author of a number of historical works in both French and English. Bib.: Papineau-Cartier; Les Etats-Unis; Patriots of 1837; contributed articles on Quebec to Canada and its Provinces.

Declaration of Independence. Prepared by Dr. John D. Rolph and Dr. O’Grady, associates of William Lyon Mackenzie, in July, 1837. It was entitled a “Declaration of the Reformers of Toronto to their Fellow Reformers in Upper Canada,” and was afterwards known as the “Declaration of the Independence of Upper Canada.” Pledged common cause with Papineau and his followers in Lower Canada. Published in the Constitution, Mackenzie’s paper. A Declaration of Independence was also issued in Lower Canada in 1838, signed by Robert Nelson, and published in the Montreal newspapers. Its grandiloquent phrasing and the fact that few people of any importance seemed to be behind it, caused Kingsford to say: “Nothing in the annals of folly can be adduced as equal to it except the traditional ‘Three Tailors of Tooley Street,’ who described themselves as ‘We, the people of England’.”

De Lancey, James. United Empire Loyalist. Sheriff of Westchester county, New York. Commanded a corps in the Revolution which, because they made free with the cattle of the rebels were known as “CowBoys.” This light horse became so unpopular and troublesome that Washington worked out an elaborate plan to capture or destroy the corps, but the expedition failed. After the war De Lancey settled in Nova Scotia, where in 1794 he became a member of the Council. Died at Annapolis in 1800. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Delaware Indians. A confederacy, of Algonquian stock, occupying the basin of the Delaware river. The name came from Lord De la Warr, governor of Virginia in 1610. They were known to the British as Delawares; to the French as Loups; and they called themselves, Lenape. Early in the eighteenth century, the Iroquois brought them into subjection. They crossed the mountains, and formed settlements in eastern Ohio, about the middle of the century. The remnant of the Delaware are now on reservations in Oklahoma, with a few hundred on the Thames river and elsewhere in Canada. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Demers, Modeste (1809-1871). Born at St. Nicolas, Lévis, Quebec. First Roman Catholic bishop of Vancouver Island, 1847-1871. He had previously been a missionary on Vancouver Island, and had made a journey to the Upper Fraser.

Déné Indians. A group of tribes, of Athapaskan stock. The name means men. Morice includes four tribes in the Western Dénés: Sekanais, on the west slope of the Rocky Mountains; Babines, who occupy the shores of the lakes of the same name, and the neighbouring country; Carriers, whose villages extend from Stuart Lake to Alexandria on the Fraser; and Chilcotins, who occupy the valley of the river of the same name. Bib.: Morice, The Western Dénés; Déné Sociology; Notes on the Western Dénés.

Denison, George Taylor (1839-1925). Born in Toronto. Came of a military family that for several generations had been keenly interested in the development of an efficient Canadian militia. His grandfather had served in the War of 1812 and the Rebellion of 1837, and organized the cavalry corps now known as the Governor-General’s Body Guard. His father organized the Queen’s Own and other Toronto militia units. His own military service began in 1855, and in 1866 he became lieutenant-colonel of the G. G. B. G. Commanded outposts on the Niagara river during the Fenian Raid, 1866. In 1877 won the prize offered by the Czar of Russia for the best History of Cavalry. That and his Modern Cavalry have both been translated into several European languages, and the former into Japanese. He was one of the founders of the Canada First Party (q.v.). A charter member of the Royal Society of Canada. Largely instrumental in organizing the Imperial Federation League in Canada, and in reorganizing the parent body in England as the British Empire League. President of the Canadian branch, which adopted the same name. Politically he was an independent. Strongly opposed commercial union with the United States. Police Magistrate of Toronto for nearly half a century. Bib.: History of Cavalry; Modern Cavalry; Soldiering in Canada; The Struggle for Imperial Unity; Fenian Raid on Fort Erie; The United Empire Loyalists. For biog., see Can. Men.

Dennis, John Stoughton (1820-1885). Born near Toronto. Educated at Victoria College; commissioned as surveyor of public lands, 1842. Assisted in the organization of the Canadian militia, 1855; raised and appointed to the command of the Toronto Field Battery, 1856; brigade-major of the 5th Military District, 1861-1869; saw active service during the Fenian Raid, 1866. Sent to Red River Settlement to organize system of surveys, 1869, but was forced to withdraw. His surveys created great uneasiness among the ignorant Half-Breeds and are believed to have been one of the causes of the Rebellion of 1870. Surveyor-general of Dominion Lands, 1871; deputy minister of the interior, 1878; retired, 1881; created C. M. G., 1882. Bib.: Denison, The Fenian Raid on Fort Erie and Soldiering in Canada. See also Riel Rebellion, 1869-1870.

Denonville, Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis of. Eleventh governor of New France. Colonel of Dragoons in French army; spent thirty years in military service before coming to Canada, in 1685, as successor to La Barre. Although a capable officer, found himself in a difficult situation owing to the condition to which the country had been brought by the failure of La Barre and the intrigues of Dongan, the English governor of New York. Adopted a severe policy with the Indians, and was condemned for his treacherous seizure of Iroquois at Fort Frontenac in 1687. The horrible massacre of Lachine was one of the consequences of his maladministration. He led an expedition into the heart of the Seneca country in 1687, defeated them and burnt their villages. Then built a fort at Niagara and placed it under the command of De Troyes. The Iroquois in retaliation ravaged the island of Montreal in 1689. Denonville grew panicky and ordered that Fort Frontenac, which stood at the gateway to the Iroquois country, should be blown up and abandoned. He had already been recalled by the king, and was succeeded in the government of the colony by Frontenac. Died in 1710. Bib.: Girouard, L’Expédition de Marquis de Denonville (R. S. C., 1899); Girouard, Lake St. Louis Old and New; Parkman, Old Régime and Frontenac.

Dent, John Charles (1841-1888). Canadian historian. Born in England. Came to Canada at an early age; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada. Went back to England and for a time engaged in newspaper work in London. Returned to America, 1847, and spent three years in Boston; came to Canada again, 1870, and became one of the editors of the Globe. Bib.: Works: Last Forty Years; Upper Canadian Rebellion; Canadian Portrait Gallery. For biog., see MacMurchy, Canadian Literature.

Denys, Nicolas (1598-1688). Born at Tours. Early took to sea and in 1633 became interested in the fisheries of Nova Scotia. A short time after was made one of the lieutenants of Acadia under the Company of New France, and settled at Miscou. In 1647 his fort was seized by D’Aulnay, who had just been made lieutenant-general of the colony. In 1650 his establishment in Cape Breton captured and he himself taken prisoner. A second attempt to settle in Cape Breton frustrated by Le Borgne. Returned to France in 1653, and received a grant of the islands of the St. Lawrence, including a monopoly of the fur trade, and shortly after became governor of that territory, together with Newfoundland. In 1667 obtained a confirmation of his rights, but in the winter of 1668-1669 his establishment at St. Peters completely destroyed by fire. In 1671 returned to France and engaged in the preparation of his work on Acadia. About 1685 returned to Acadia, but his closing years darkened by the loss of his vast estates. Died three years later, at the age of ninety years. Bib.: Description and Natural History of Acadia, ed. by Ganong. For biog., see Parkman, Old Régime.

Denys. See La Ronde.

De Peyster, Arent Schuyler (1736-1822). Born in New York, a nephew of Peter Schuyler of Albany, he entered the British army in 1755. Came to Canada, 1768, and in 1774 was sent to command at Michilimackinac. In 1779 he was promoted to the post at Detroit where he remained until 1784. Stationed for a short time at Niagara, and returned to England in 1785. In 1795 he settled at Dumfries, where he enjoyed the acquaintance of Robert Burns. His Miscellanies contain interesting material on the western tribes and events in the west during the Revolution. He died at Dumfries. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Derby, Edward George Geoffrey Smith Stanley, fourteenth Earl (1799-1869). Entered Parliament, 1820; Irish secretary, 1830-1833; colonial secretary, 1833-1834 and 1841-1844. Prime minister, 1852, 1858-1859, and 1866-1868. While colonial secretary he had taken a decided stand against the movement for responsible government in Canada. Endorsed Metcalfe’s policy, and in a speech in the House of Commons, 1844, gave his views on colonial government. “It was inconsistent,” he said, “with a monarchical government that the governor should be nominally responsible, and yet was to be stripped of all power and authority, and to be reduced to that degree of power which was vested in the Sovereign of this country. It was inconsistent with colonial dependence altogether and was overlooking altogether the distinction which must subsist between an independent country and a colony subject to the domination of the mother country.” Bib.: Kebbel, Earl of Derby; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Derby, Frederick Arthur Stanley, sixteenth Earl (1841-1908). Secretary of state for war, 1878-1880; secretary of state for the colonies, 1885-1886; president of the Board of Trade, 1886-1888; governor-general of Canada, 1888-1893. His tenure of office as governor-general marked by the bitter controversy over the Manitoba School Question, the death of Sir John Macdonald, and the decision to arbitrate the Bering Sea Seal Fisheries question. Succeeded to earldom, 1893.

Derby. On the Fraser river, British Columbia. Named after the then secretary for the colonies. Previously known as Fort Langley. It was at one time suggested as the capital of the colony. Bib.: Scholefield and Howay, British Columbia.

Des Barres, William Frederick (1800-1885). Born in Nova Scotia. Educated at Halifax Grammar School; called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1821. Represented Guysborough in the Assembly, 1836-1848; solicitor-general in Uniacke government, 1848; appointed judge of the Supreme Court, 1848; resigned, 1881. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Deschaillons, Jean Baptiste Saint-Ours (1669-1747). Born in Canada. Commanded a detachment for the upper country in 1715; later was in command at Fort St. Joseph; in 1727 at Kaministikwia; and in 1728 at Detroit. In 1736 he was in command at Crown Point. He had been made an ensign in 1692; lieutenant in 1710; and captain, 1718. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Deschamps, Isaac (1722-1801). A native of Switzerland; came to Nova Scotia in early life. Elected to the Assembly, 1761; judge of the Court of Common Pleas for King’s County, 1761; judge of the Island of St. John, 1768; assistant judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1770; chief-justice, 1785. Appointed a member of the Council, 1783. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Des Groseilliers. See Chouart.

Des Marets, Claude Godet, Sieur de. He was the son-in-law of Pont-Gravé. Arrived in Quebec with Champlain, 1609. Accompanied Champlain the same year on the expeditions to Lake Champlain and Lake George. Died about 1626.

De Smet, Pierre Jean (1801-1873). For many years a missionary among the western Indians. Travelled extensively through the mountain region north and south of the international boundary. In 1845 he crossed the mountains by way of Cross river and Whiteman’s pass, wintered at Edmonton, and returned by way of Athabaska pass in 1846. Roche de Smet, in Jasper Park, named after him. Bib.: Life, Letters and Travels of Father De Smet.

Dessaules, Louis A. Born, 1819. Member of Legislative Council, 1856-1863. A member of the Parti Rouge. Edited Le Pays at Montreal. Bib.: Works: Rouge et Noir; Lectures sur l’Annexion du Canada aux Etats-Unis; Galilée, Ses Travaux Scientifiques et sa Condamnation; La Guerre Américaine. For biog., see Morgan, Bib. Can.

Detroit. Founded by Antoine de la Motte Cadillac (q.v.) in 1701. The fort remained under Cadillac’s command until 1710. A census taken that year shows six settlers cultivating the land, and twenty-nine soldiers, traders, etc., occupying houses within the fort. De la Forest succeeded Cadillac at the fort, 1710. Surrendered to the British, 1760. It was recognized as the most important of the western fortified posts. Had been a strategic point in the fur trade under the French, and remained such under the British. Pontiac laid siege to the fort, 1763, but failed to capture it owing to the courage and energy of Major Gladwin. By the terms of the treaty of Paris it fell within United States territory, but with other western posts was held by the British for some years as security for fair treatment of the Loyalists. Menaced by Wayne in 1793. Transferred to United States, 1796. It was then a flourishing little town, part French, part English. Captured by Brock, in War of 1812. General Hull, then in command of the fort, had two thousand regulars and militia. Brock attacked with seven hundred regulars and militia and about seven hundred Indians under Tecumseh. Hull surrendered unconditionally. Restored by treaty of Ghent. Bib.: Cadillac Papers (Mich. Hist. Coll., vol. xxxiii et seq.); Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Keep, Detroit.

Devil’s Hole. Near Fort Niagara. Scene of the massacre by Indians of an English regiment in 1763, ambuscaded while marching to Fort Schlosser.

Devonshire, Victor Christian William Cavendish, Duke of (1868-). Sat for Derbyshire W. in British House, 1891-1908; financial secretary to the treasury, 1903-1905; lord-lieutenant of Derbyshire; governor-general of Canada, 1916-1921, throughout part of the Great War and the difficult reconstruction period that followed. His term of office was marked by the Imperial Conference, meetings of Imperial War Cabinet and Imperial War Conference, completion of the Quebec bridge, extension of parliamentary franchise to women, fourth war loan, explosion at Halifax, battles of Vimy Ridge, Loos, Passchendaele, Amiens, Cambrai, signing of the armistice, death of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, signing of peace treaties, visit of Prince of Wales to Canada, the various war loans, organization of Canadian National Railways, West Indies trade conference at Ottawa.

Dewdney, Edgar (1835-1916). Born in Devonshire, England. Came to British Columbia, 1859. Had charge of survey of site of New Westminster, and other engineering works. First elected to provincial Legislature, 1869; returned to Dominion House, 1872. Appointed Indian commissioner for North-West Territories, 1879; and lieutenant-governor of North-West Territories, 1881. Member of Dominion Cabinet as minister of interior, 1888-1892. Appointed lieutenant-governor of British Columbia, 1892. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Dewdney Trail. Road surveyed and built by Edgar Dewdney and Walter Moberly from Hope to Similkameen, and afterwards extended to Fort Steele on the Kootenay. Part of Sir James Douglas’ ambitious scheme of road-building in British Columbia.

Dickey, Arthur R. Born 1854. Son of following. Practised law in Amherst. Elected to House of Commons for Cumberland county, 1888-1896. Secretary of state, 1894; minister of militia and defence, 1895; minister of justice, 1896. Represented the Dominion government, with Sir Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), and A. Desjardins, in the negotiations with the Manitoba government over the Manitoba School Question. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Dickey, Robert Barry (1811-1903). Born in Amherst, Nova Scotia. Studied law, and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, and of New Brunswick, 1834. Sat in Legislative Council, Nova Scotia, 1858-1867. Appointed to the Senate, 1867. Took an active part in the negotiations leading up to the building of the Intercolonial Railway, and the Confederation of the provinces. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Dickson, Walter Hamilton (1806-1884). Born in Niagara. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1830. Served during the Rebellion of 1837 as a cavalry officer. Represented Niagara in the Assembly, 1841-1851; sat in the Legislative Council of Canada, 1855-1867; appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867.

Dieskau, Jean Armand, Baron de (1701-1777). Of German descent; served with distinction under Marshal Saxe. When it was made known to the court at Versailles that the British had sent two regiments to America under Braddock, the French decided to fit out an expedition on a larger scale, and six regiments embarked for Canada under Dieskau, who was given the rank of general. Immediately after assuming command, prepared to attack the British and marched at the head of a body of men against Johnson, who was in the Lake Champlain country. Although his plans appear to have been well laid, Dieskau’s position was betrayed through the action of the Indians. Severely wounded, he was made prisoner, but well cared for by the British. Taken to England, ruined in health and fortune. Liberated at the conclusion of the war in 1763, and returned to France. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, Fight with France.

Digby. A town in Nova Scotia, on Digby Basin. Founded, 1783; incorporated as a town, 1890. Became famous because of its shipbuilding, its cherries and its “Digby chickens.”

Dinesen, Thomas. Private, 42nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Awarded the Victoria Cross for most conspicuous and continuous bravery displayed during ten hours of hand-to-hand fighting, August 12th, 1918, at Parvillers, which resulted in the capture of over a mile of strongly garrisoned and stubbornly defended enemy trenches. Five times in succession he rushed forward alone, and single-handed put hostile machine-guns out of action.

Discovery. The “good and luckie ship,” that was so closely associated with the search for the North-West Passage. She was a “fly-boat” of seventy tons. Waymouth sailed in her to the north-west in 1602, Hudson in 1610, Button in 1612, Gibbon in 1614 and Bylot and Baffin in 1615. A sloop of the same name was lost in Knight’s ill-fated voyage of 1719. A pink called the Discovery was used by Middleton in a voyage to the northern part of Hudson Bay in 1741-1742. One of Cook’s vessels in his third expedition, 1776-1780, also bore this name. Finally one of the ships in the Nares expedition, 1875-1876, was called the Discovery. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Dixon, George. Commanded the Queen Charlotte. Was on the north-west coast of America in 1787 with Captain Portlock of the King George. They had been shipmates in Cook’s last voyage. In 1787 they traded up and down the coast separately. Dixon sailed around the Queen Charlotte Islands, and named them after his vessel. After his return to England he got into a controversy with Captain Meares over their respective rights to original discovery of certain points on the north-west coast. He died about 1800. An account of his voyage, written by his supercargo William Beresford, was published in 1788. Dixon Entrance was named after him by Sir Joseph Banks. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Dollard des Ormeaux, Adam. (1634?-1660). A young officer of the garrison at Montreal, who saved Montreal and the colony from probable destruction by the Iroquois, in 1660. With sixteen companions and a few Indian allies, he intercepted the Iroquois at the Long Sault Rapids, on the Ottawa, and with a heroism seldom equalled in the world’s history, this little band gave their lives for their country’s sake. The Iroquois, discouraged by such unexpected resistance, abandoned the projected raid on the colony. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Jesuit Relations, 1660; Faillon, Histoire de la Colonie Française; Dollier de Casson, Histoire de Montréal. The exploit has inspired several Canadian poems. See Martin, Marguerite; Fréchette, Legende d’un Peuple.

Dollier de Casson, Francis (1636-1701). Born in Basse Bretagne. Served with distinction as a cavalry officer under Turenne. Came to Montreal and joined the Sulpicians in 1666. In 1669-1670 carried out with Galinée an important exploration of the country north of Lake Erie and west to Sault Ste. Marie. Became superior of the Seminary of Montreal, and later vicar-general of the diocese. Bib.: Histoire de Montréal. For biog., see Parkman, Old Régime; Exploration of the Great Lakes by Dollier de Casson and de Bréhant de Galinée, ed. by Coyne.

Don de Dieu. Name of the ship in which Champlain sailed for Quebec in 1608. A boat of 80 tons. This, or another vessel of the same name, was sent out to Canada in 1633 by the Company of One Hundred Associates with settlers and provisions. Bib.: Douglas, Old France.

Dongan, Thomas, Earl of Limerick (1634-1715). Colonial governor of New York. Came to America, 1682. Resigned, 1688. Became Earl of Limerick, 1698. Carried on a diplomatic correspondence with La Barre and later with Denonville. Very successful in playing off the Iroquois against the French—using the French menace as a means of binding the Indians to New England, and the Iroquois menace as an argument to compel the French to abandon Fort Frontenac. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Dorchester, Guy Carleton, first Baron (1724-1808). Born in County Down, Ireland. Commissioned an ensign in Lord Rothe’s Regiment, 1742. Promotion came slowly, but in 1757 he was lieutenant-colonel of the 72nd Regiment. Served with the British legion under Prince Ferdinand in Germany. In 1759, at Wolfe’s special request, accompanied him to Canada as quartermaster-general. Wolfe relied upon him to supply the lack of ability among his engineers. Entrusted with the task of drawing off the troops from the camp at Montmorency. In the Battle of the Plains led a regiment of grenadiers and was wounded. Returning to Europe, he took part in 1761 in the attack on Port Andro, and was again wounded. Full colonel, 1762, and served under Albemarle at siege of Havana, and once more wounded. Appointed to succeed Murray as governor of Canada, 1768. He had been appointed lieutenant-governor two years earlier. He arrived at a very critical time, and it needed all his ability both as general and statesman to steer the country safely through. From both points of view, he foresaw the importance of binding the French to the British cause by generous treatment. In 1770 he returned to England, to discuss Canadian affairs with the Home government. Remained there four years, and had much to do with the drafting of the Quebec Act. In 1775, on news of the American Invasion, he hurried to Montreal and called out the militia, but realizing the impossibility with his limited force of defending Montreal, concentrated his energy on Quebec. His courage and energy inspired his men, and the invaders were driven back from the citadel and out of the country. In 1776 he defeated the Americans in a naval engagement on Lake Champlain. Lord George Germain, narrow-minded and revengeful, had an old grudge against Carleton, and took advantage of his authority in 1777 to take the command of the troops from Carleton and give it to Burgoyne. Carleton promptly offered his resignation, and in 1778 returned to England. In 1782 he was sent out again as commander-in-chief to succeed Clinton at New York. He came back to America with greatly increased authority, to deal with more difficult and delicate problems. Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown, and the war was dwindling to its ignominious end. With the peace, Carleton’s chief preoccupation was to defend the cause of the unfortunate Loyalists, and get them safely out of the country. This accomplished, he returned to England, 1784. Two years later, having been made Baron Dorchester, he was offered the governorship of Canada, and threw himself into the involved affairs of the colony with renewed energy. The Quebec Act had solved some of the difficulties that had confronted him in his previous term of office, but by no means all of them. The English criminal law and the French civil code were nominally in force, but the administration of civil law was in hopeless confusion, “English judges following English, French judges French law, and what was worse some followed no particular laws of any kind whatsoever.” These and questions of local commerce, education and police regulations, the Indians, the western posts, and transportation, all engaged Dorchester’s attention, and all had the benefit of his ripe judgment. His relations with Simcoe were somewhat unfortunate; both were men of determined character, and Dorchester held strong views as to centralized authority. They were bound to clash, and the dispute was at least partly responsible for the resignation of their posts by both men. Dorchester met his last Parliament in November, 1795, and the following July sailed for England. The frigate Active on which he sailed was wrecked on Anticosti, and the governor and his family were taken to Halifax, from which they finally reached England. Dorchester died at Stubbings, near Maidenhead. Bib.: Bradley, Lord Dorchester; Kingsford, History of Canada; Lucas, History of Canada; Bradley, The Making of Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Wood, Father of British Canada.

Dorion, Sir Antoine Aimé (1818-1891). Educated at Nicolet College. Studied law, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1842. Signed the Annexation Manifesto, 1849. Represented Montreal in Legislature, 1854-1861. One of the leaders of the Parti Rouge, and a disciple of Papineau. Accepted the policy of representation by population. Moved resolution favouring union of the Canadas, in 1856. Formed administration with George Brown, 1858. Defeated by Cartier in Montreal, 1861. Provincial secretary in Sandfield Macdonald-Sicotte government, 1862. Succeeded Sicotte as attorney-general, 1863. Helped to convert George Brown to Confederation, but afterwards opposed it in Parliament. Minister of justice in Mackenzie government, 1873-1874. Chief-justice of Quebec, 1874-1891. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party.

Dorion, Jean Baptiste Eric (1826-1866). Brother of preceding, and like him a leader of the Parti Rouge. He was nicknamed L’enfant terrible, because of his fiery eloquence and the uncertainty as to who would be its next victim. One of founders of L’Avenir, 1848. Sat in the Legislature, 1854-1857, and again in 1861. Bib.: Morgan, Bib. Can.

Dosquet, Pierre-Herman (1691-1777). Native of Lille, France; came to Canada, 1721; on his return to France, 1725, consecrated bishop of Samos and appointed coadjutor to Bishop Mornay. Later made bishop of Quebec. While in Canada lived in the style of a seignior, much in contrast to the simple life of Laval and of St. Vallier. Died in Paris. Bib.: Tetu, Évêques de Québec; Casgrain, L’Habitation de Samos (R. S. C., 1906).

Double Majority. In Canadian politics, about the middle of the nineteenth century, it meant that “no ministry should be held to possess the confidence of Parliament unless it could command a majority in each section of the province.” With an overwhelming majority of French in one section and an equally overwhelming majority of English in the other, no permanent government was possible that did not tacitly recognize the principle of a double majority. Bib.: Parkin, Sir John Macdonald; Lewis, George Brown; Dent, Last Forty Years; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Mackenzie, George Brown.

Double Ministries. Brown-Dorion; Hincks-Morin; LaFontaine-Baldwin; Macdonald-Cartier; Macdonald-Dorion; Macdonald-Sicotte; MacNab-Morin; MacNab-Taché; Sherwood-Daly; Taché-Macdonald. See under names of individual ministers.

“Double Shuffle,” 1858. An ingenious device resorted to by John A. Macdonald, Cartier and their colleagues to avoid the necessity of re-election. The Macdonald-Cartier government had been succeeded in 1858 by the Brown-Dorion administration, and that almost immediately by the former government with some minor changes. Constitutional practice required the ministers to return to their constituents for re-election, but advantage was taken of a clause in the statute that provided that when a minister accepted another office within one month he should not thereby vacate his seat. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown.

Doucett, Joseph. Lieutenant-governor of the Fort of Annapolis, 1717-1726. Member of the governor’s Council.

Dougall, John (1808-1886). Born in Paisley, Scotland. Came to Canada, 1826, and took up mercantile pursuits. For a time editor of the Canada Temperance Advocate; founded the Montreal Witness, 1826. Died in Flushing, New York.

Doughty, Arthur George (1860-). Appointed joint librarian of the Legislative Library of Quebec, 1901-1904. Succeeded Douglas Brymner as Dominion Archivist and Keeper of the Records, 1904. Appointed a member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907. Largely responsible for the arrangements in connection with the celebration of the Tercentenary of the founding of Quebec. Bib.: Siege of Quebec and Battle of the Plains; Quebec under Two Flags; The Fortress of Quebec; Cradle of New France; The King’s Book of Quebec.

Douglas, David (1798-1834). Made extensive botanical collections on the Pacific coast of North America, for the Horticultural Society of London, 1824-1826. Crossed the continent from Fort Vancouver, on the Columbia, to Hudson Bay; met Sir John Franklin there and returned with him to England. Came out again to the Columbia River on a similar mission, 1829, and went from there to the Hawaiian Islands, where he was killed. The gigantic Douglas fir was named after him. On his return journey across the continent he travelled up the Columbia and over Athabaska Pass. In his Journal he named two peaks on either side of the pass Mts. Brown and Hooker, and estimated their heights at about 16,000 feet. As a matter of fact there is no peak in the vicinity of the pass much over 10,000 feet. The error seems to have been in regard to the height of the pass above sea level rather than to the height of the peaks themselves. Bib.: Douglas’ Journal, 1823-27.

Douglas, Sir Howard (1776-1861). Entered the army, 1794; commanded a regiment at Quebec, 1797; served at Corunna and Flushing, 1809. After discharging various military missions, appointed governor of New Brunswick, 1823, holding the position until 1828. While there he interested himself in educational problems, and did his utmost to secure a liberal charter for King’s College. Lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, 1835-1840. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Fulton, Life of Sir Howard Douglas.

Douglas, Sir James (1803-1877). Born in Lanarkshire, Scotland. Educated in Scotland. Came to Canada in 1820 and joined the North West Company. Reported at Fort William, where he first came in contact with Dr. John McLoughlin, then in charge of the fort. When the North West Company was merged in the Hudson’s Bay Company the following year, McLoughlin, who had been put in charge of the fur trade west of the mountains, took Douglas with him as far as the Athabaska department, where he served an apprenticeship, and then accompanied William Connolly to New Caledonia in 1824. He spent several years at Fort St. James, Fort McLeod, and other posts in what is now northern British Columbia; married Amelia Connolly, daughter of the chief factor; and in 1830 was transferred to Fort Vancouver. In 1835 he had charge of the York Factory express, which crossed the continent by way of the Columbia, Athabaska Pass, the Saskatchewan and the Hayes route to Hudson Bay; and five years later he commanded the party that was sent north to raise the British flag above Fort Stikine, in the territory leased by the Company from Russia. On his return journey he moved Fort McLoughlin from Millbank Sound to the head of Vancouver Island. The same year he was sent south to negotiate with the Mexican governor for the privilege of carrying on the fur trade in California. A fort was built on San Francisco Bay, but was abandoned in 1846. Douglas succeeded McLoughlin as manager of that disastrous experiment, the Puget Sound Agricultural Company. He had been promoted to chief trader in 1832, and to chief factor in 1840. Three years later he built Fort Victoria, on Vancouver Island, to which the western headquarters of the Hudson’s Bay Company were moved after the final settlement of the international boundary. In 1846 he succeeded McLoughlin in charge of the western department of the Hudson’s Bay Company; and in 1851 succeeded Blanchard as governor of Vancouver Island, still remaining an officer of the Company. For several years he governed the little colony with the aid of his council; but in 1856, under instructions from the Colonial Office, he divided the country into electoral districts and called the first Legislature of Vancouver Island. Two years later, when the mainland was made a separate colony, Douglas was appointed governor of this as well as of the Island colony, and finally severed his connection with the Hudson’s Bay Company. The creation of the new colony had been made necessary owing to the discovery of gold on the Fraser, and for some years Douglas’ energies were devoted to the urgent problems of transportation and civil government arising out of the Cariboo gold rush. He was in the curious position of representing the Crown in one colony possessing representative institutions, and at the same time in another where he was practically an autocrat. Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, the colonial secretary, paid a warm tribute to his ability, readiness of resource, and wise and manly temper of conciliation. In no respect did he show his courage more clearly than in carrying out a policy of road-building that for such a small community was extraordinarily ambitious, and included the famous Cariboo Road and the Dewdney Trail. He even planned a highway through the Rockies, to connect with a road to be built on the eastern side and form a transcontinental route. In 1863 his governorship of Vancouver Island ended, and the following year he retired from the governorship of the mainland, and sailed for England. After some months in Europe, he returned to Victoria, where he died. See also Hudson’s Bay Company; Puget Sound Agricultural Company; McLoughlin, John; Vancouver Island; British Columbia. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Bancroft, History of British Columbia; Begg, History of British Columbia; Scholefield and Howay, British Columbia.

Douglas, Captain W. M. With Meares on the North-West Coast in 1788. Sailed from Canton in the Iphigenia Nubiana for Cook River. Joined Meares at Nootka with a large cargo of sea-otter skins; and from there sailed to the Sandwich Islands. Returned to Nootka the following year, and his ship was seized by Martinez in command of a Spanish ship of war. Douglas satisfied Martinez that Cook had discovered Nootka before the Spaniards, and the Iphigenia was released, but with a warning not to trade on that coast. Douglas sailed to the Queen Charlotte Islands, and thence to China. Bib.: Bancroft, North West Coast.

Doukhobors. Spirit Wrestlers, or as they called themselves, “The Christian Community of the Universal Brotherhood.” They seem to have originated north of the Black Sea in Russia, and were bitterly persecuted by the Russian government, their communities broken up and scattered throughout the Caucasus in 1841-1844. Their leader Peter Veregin with many of his disciples were banished to Siberia in 1886. Tolstoi took up their cause, and with the support of English and American Quakers got permission for them to emigrate to America, and raised a fund to help them. Prince Hilkoff came out to Canada with a deputation, the Canadian government set apart 270,000 acres in the Saskatchewan Valley, and in 1899 seventy-three hundred Doukhobors arrived and began community settlements in the neighbourhood of Yorkton and Rosthern. Both before and after they came to Canada they had the sympathy and support of Professor James Mavor, of Toronto University. While excellent farmers the Doukhobors have not made very desirable citizens. Their peculiar religious and social ideas have made them a race apart, a little bit of southern Russia on the Canadian prairies. They live in communal villages, although the younger generation shows a tendency to break away from this practice. They not only refuse military service, but deny the obligation to obey any human laws. Their fanaticism has at times given great trouble to the Canadian Mounted Police, particularly between 1902 and 1907, when many of them were persuaded that the Millennium was at hand and started out across the western prairies to meet Christ, throwing away their clothes as they marched. Veregin, having been released from Siberia, arrived in Canada in 1902, and being a shrewd business man and a born leader, put the affairs of the Doukhobors in excellent shape. Finding conditions unsatisfactory in Saskatchewan, he bought 10,000 acres of fruit land from the Hudson’s Bay Company, at the junction of the Columbia and Kootenay rivers in British Columbia, and settled five thousand of his people there, where they have been very successful. Veregin said in 1919 that their community holdings in Canada were worth $2,000,000. According to the census of 1921, there were then 12,648 Doukhobors in Canada. Veregin died in 1924. Bib.: Black, History of Saskatchewan.

Doutre, Joseph (1825-1886). Born in Beauharnois, Quebec. Called to the bar, 1847. Early became a leader of the Liberal party. One of the founders of Le Pays, besides contributing to other newspapers. As a result of one of his articles, fought a duel with Georges É. Cartier, but without serious consequences. Joined the Institut Canadien at Montreal, and became the president, 1852. Took a leading part in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church in the “Joseph Guibord Case.” Counsel for the Dominion government before the Halifax Fisheries Commission. Bib.: Works: Les Fiancès de 1812; Le Frère et la Sœur; Les Sauvages du Canada; The Constitution of Canada. For biog., see Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

Doyle, Sir Charles Hastings (1805-1883). Served in the army. Commander of the forces in Nova Scotia, 1861-1868; lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1866-1867; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1867-1870; commander of the forces in British North America, 1870-1874. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Doyle, Lawrence O’Connor. Associated with Joseph Howe and Haliburton in writing “The Club” papers in the Nova Scotian. Sir John Harvey offered him a seat in the Executive Council of Nova Scotia in 1846. Elected to the Assembly for Halifax the following year. A member of the Uniacke government, 1848. Bib.: Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia; Longley, Joseph Howe.

Drake, Sir Francis (1545-1596). Sailed from Plymouth for the River Plate, 1577; passed through the Straits of Magellan, 1578; plundered Valparaiso, and explored the western coast of North America taking possession of the country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, and naming it New Albion. He attempted to return in 1579 by a northerly route, but had to abandon the attempt, and sailed back to England by way of the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching Portsmouth in September, 1580. Vice-admiral of the fleet in the defeat of the Spanish Armada off Gravelines, 1588. Died on board his own ship off Porto Bello and was buried at sea. Bib.: Southey, Lives of the Admirals; Corbett, Drake and the Tudor Navy; Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America; Froude, English Seamen in the Seventeenth Century; Laut, Vikings of the Pacific; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Draper, William Henry (1801-1877). Born in London, England. In his youth ran away to sea and served on an East Indiaman. Came to Canada in 1821 and taught school at Port Hope; subsequently studied law and began practice at York. Elected to Assembly of Upper Canada for city of Toronto in 1836, and made a member of the Executive Council. During the Rebellion of 1837 acted as aide-de-camp to the lieutenant-governor. In March, 1837, became solicitor-general, and in 1840 succeeded Christopher Hagerman as attorney-general. As solicitor-general he had brought in a bill for the disposal of the Clergy Reserves and the distribution of the proceeds; and had presented to the Upper Canadian Assembly the resolutions embodying the proposed terms of union with Lower Canada. After the union of the provinces, retained in the Executive Council as attorney-general of Upper Canada. It fell to his lot to pilot the ministry through the stormy debates of the first session, and to resist the attacks of Baldwin, Hincks, and their fellow-Reformers. His oratorical powers earned him the name of “Sweet William.” He has been described as “a man of great ability, eloquent and persuasive of speech, skilled as a parliamentary manager and dexterous in the game of politics.” By principle and temperament he was a Conservative and opposed to the extension of democratic rule. He introduced bills for the promotion of higher education, and for the establishment of municipal institutions, but had not sufficient support in the Assembly to put them through. In September, 1842, saw the necessity of resigning and gave way in order that the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry might be formed. In 1843 appointed to the Legislative Council, where he led the opposition. On the resignation of the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry in December, 1843, accepted office with Viger, and in the exciting election held in the autumn of 1844 obtained a bare majority for the new ministry. The previous summer he had visited Lower Canada to canvass the political situation, and had written Metcalfe that he had come to the conclusion that the aid of the French Canadians was not to be obtained on any other terms than the restoration of Baldwin and LaFontaine. In January, 1845, resigned his seat in the Legislative Council and elected to the Assembly for London. He had an Act passed in this year for the indemnification of those whose property had been damaged during the Rebellion of 1837-1838. An unsuccessful attempt to secure the support of the French-Canadian Reform section discredited him with the Tories of Upper Canada, and in May, 1847, withdrew from the Cabinet, and shortly afterwards resigned his seat in the Assembly. Appointed puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench for Upper Canada, and in 1856 made chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. In 1857 a commissioner to represent Canada before the committee of the British Parliament investigating the affairs of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In July, 1863, succeeded Archibald McLean as chief-justice of Upper Canada; and in 1869 appointed president of the Court of Error and Appeal. Continued to act in this position until his death. Bib.. Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Read, Lives of the Judges; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Burwash, Egerton Ryerson; Parkin, Sir John A. Macdonald; Bourinot, Lord Elgin. For his own writings, see Morgan, Bib. Can.

Dreuilletes, Gabriel (1610-1681). Studied at Jesuit College, Toulouse. In 1643 came to Canada and spent a year in study of Algonquian language. Soon became proficient in that tongue and accompanied wandering bands on their hunting trips. In 1646 went on an expedition to the Abnaki tribes of Maine, who had become interested in Christianity through converts of the Sillery mission. Remained with the Abnaki one year and then removed to district of Tadoussac, where he spent three years among the Montagnais. In 1651 the governor of New France, D’Ailleboust, sent him to form an alliance with the New England colonies against the Iroquois, offering commercial advantages as an inducement, but in this was unsuccessful. He made the journey with his friend John Winslow, and Puritan Boston enjoyed the unusual and not too welcome privilege of entertaining a French Jesuit. Laboured for twenty years in missions of Sillery, Three Rivers, and other posts. In 1661 had charge of the mission to the Cree tribes, and in 1672 spent some time in the mission of Sault Ste. Marie, of which he was one of the founders. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America and La Salle; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Drew, Andrew (1792-1878). Entered the navy, 1806. Took part in many of the most important engagements during the war with France, including the Walcheren expedition. Promoted to lieutenant for gallantry during the fight between the Eurotas and the French frigate Clorinde, 1814. Promoted to commander for his brilliant defence of Cape Coast Castle against the Ashantees, 1824. Retired and settled in Canada. During Rebellion of 1837 offered his services to the government. Conducted the capture of the Caroline (q.v.), for which he received the thanks of the Upper Canada Parliament and was appointed commander of the provincial marine. A grant by the Assembly to provide seventy-five guineas for the purchase of a sword of honour was not approved by the Legislative Council. Remained on active service in Canada until 1839. Appointed to the command of the Wasp on the West India Station, 1842, where he discovered and surveyed a dangerous rock which still bears his name. Appointed naval storekeeper at the Cape of Good Hope, 1850. Raised to the rank of admiral, 1862. Retired from active service and resided in England until his death. See also Caroline. Bib.: Drew and Woods, The Burning of the Caroline; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Lizars, Humours of ’37; Read, Rebellion of 1837.

Drocourt-Quéant. In August, 1918, as a vital step toward the capture of Cambrai, the Canadian divisions were entrusted with the big task of acting as spearhead in wiping out the Drocourt-Quéant end of the Hindenburg Line. The country was naturally more adapted to defence than attack, and the Germans had added to its strength in every conceivable way. General Currie planned to “drive a wedge into the enemy with two of his Canadian divisions.” With the aid of a tremendous barrage the infantry smashed the almost impregnable German lines, gaining six thousand yards on a front of ten thousand yards the first day. Furious attack and counter-attack followed in the succeeding days, and on September 2nd the Drocourt-Quéant line was destroyed and the enemy flying in disorder back to the Canal du Nord. Two days later the Canadian lines had been established along the west bank of the canal. The total count of prisoners had reached 10,360, with ninety-seven guns, 1,016 machine-guns and seventy-three trench-mortars. Five trench systems had been wiped out and eighteen German divisions practically put out of business. Bib.: Canada in the Great World War, vol. v.

Drummond, Sir George Alexander (1829-1910). Educated University of Edinburgh. Became president of the Bank of Montreal. Called to the Senate, 1888. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Drummond, Sir Gordon (1771-1854). Son of Colin Drummond, at one time deputy paymaster-general of the forces in Canada. Born at Quebec. Entered the army, 1789, and rapidly promoted until in 1794 became lieutenant-colonel of the 8th Liverpool Regiment. Saw distinguished service in the Netherlands and in the West Indies; became colonel, 1798, and commanded his regiment during the campaign in Egypt, assisting in capture of Cairo and Alexandria. In 1805 given rank of major-general and took command of a division in Jamaica. In December, 1808, transferred to the staff in Canada until 1811. Served for a time in Ireland; returned to Canada as second in command to Sir George Prevost, 1813. Took a prominent part in the War of 1812. From December, 1813, to April, 1815, president and administrator of Upper Canada, and during this period succeeded in turning the tide of victory to the British forces. Defeated the Americans at Niagara, July 28th, 1814, and followed this up by occupying Fort Erie in November. In recognition of his services during the war, gazetted a K. C. B. On the departure of Sir George Prevost appointed administrator of Lower Canada, and assumed office April 4th, 1815. Had expressed a strong desire to return to England, as it was understood that the appointment was to be only temporary. Accordingly relieved by Major-General Wilson, and departed from Quebec, May 20th, 1816. Obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in 1825. In 1827 made a G. C. B. Died in London. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Rattray, The Scot in British North America.

Drummond, Lewis Thomas (1813-1882). Born in Londonderry, Ireland. Came to Canada with his mother, 1825. Educated at Nicolet College; studied law, and called to the bar, 1836. Elected to the Assembly for Montreal, 1843, but prevented from taking his seat by the dissolution of the Assembly. Defeated in the general election that followed, but in the same year elected for Portneuf. Held office in the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry as solicitor-general for Lower Canada, 1848-1851, and became attorney-general for Lower Canada in the Hincks-Morin government, 1851. Held office under various administrations until 1856, when he resigned, owing to a dispute over the leadership of the Assembly. He took a leading part in the settlement of a difficult and delicate question, the removal of the old feudal system of Seigniorial Tenure. He brought down a bill in 1853, which failed because of the opposition of the Legislative Council. The following year he introduced a similar measure, which, with some amendments in the Upper House, was passed. It abolished all feudal rights and duties in Lower Canada, and created a Seigniorial Court to deal with the intricate questions of law involved. Provision was made for compensation to the seigniors. Again took office as attorney-general in the short-lived Brown-Dorion administration, 1861, and as commissioner of public works in the Macdonald-Dorion government, 1863. In the same year defeated for re-election and retired from political life. Appointed a judge of the Superior Court for Lower Canada, 1864. Retired, 1873. Died in Montreal. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Dubuque, Julien. Described as the first permanent white settler in Iowa. Born in Canada, 1762. Entered the fur trade, and in 1785 had a trading post at Prairie du Chien. Learned from the Indians of lead mines, and in 1788 obtained a concession to work them. Pike met him in 1805 on his western expedition. Died, 1810. City of Dubuque, Iowa, named after him. Bib.: Annals of Iowa, 3rd series vol. ii.

Du Calvet, Pierre. Under the French régime engaged in the fur trade and, having acquired considerable wealth, remained in the colony after the conquest. In 1764 made a magistrate and justice of the peace. Vigorously opposed an ordinance of 1770 regulating the administration of justice, and on several subsequent occasions clashed with the executive authority. Suspected by Haldimand of having been in secret correspondence with the United States, and arrested in September, 1780; from November, 1780, to May, 1783, kept in confinement without the opportunity of a legal trial. In 1784 went to England, where he denounced Haldimand and sought redress before the British ministry. In this connection published an Appel à la Justice de l’Etat, setting forth his personal grievances, but concluding with a carefully prepared plan of government, which was considered as the basis for that adopted in the Constitutional Act of 1791. Complaints were not favourably received, and returned to Canada. In March, 1786, left New York for London on board the Shelburne, which is supposed to have been lost with all on board. See also Haldimand, Sir Frederick. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents of Canada; Sulte, Pierre Ducalvet (R. S. C., 1919). For full titles of his Appel à la justice de l’État and The Case of Pierre Du Calvet, see Morgan, Bib. Can.

Duchesneau, Jacques. Intendant of New France, 1675-1682. His commission invested him with the title of president of the Sovereign Council, an office which had hitherto been filled by the governor. As Frontenac, a man of dominant spirit, was then governor, interminable disputes arose between him and the intendant touching questions of precedence. Frontenac lost no opportunity of showing his resentment; and the intendant sided with the bishop in the vexed question of selling brandy to the Indians. Finally the quarrel came to the ears of the king, and both governor and intendant were recalled. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in New World; Parkman, Frontenac; Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Duck Lake. A small settlement near Fort Carlton, and about forty miles from Prince Albert. Scene of a skirmish during the Riel Rebellion of 1885. A quantity of provisions and forage had been stored there, which Riel was determined to capture. Gabriel Dumont with a party of half-breeds met Major Crozier of the Mounted Police with a force of about 100 men, and compelled them to retire with a loss of twelve men killed and about twenty-five wounded. Crozier retired on Fort Carlton, and on March 29th evacuated it as incapable of defence. See also Riel Rebellion, 1885. Bib.: Burpee, Saskatchewan Rebellion (Canada in the Great World War, vol. i.).

Dudouyt, Jean. A director of the Seminary at Quebec in 1661. Grand vicar to the bishop of Quebec in 1675. Laval created an ecclesiastical court that year and made Dudouyt a member. Laval sent him to France in 1676 to explain to the Court the situation as to the fur trade and the selling of liquor to the Indians. He had an interview with Colbert but found him unsympathetic. In 1684 became grand cantor of the diocese of Quebec. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac.

Dufferin and Ava, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, Marquess of (1826-1902). British commissioner to Syria, 1860; under-secretary for India, 1864-1866, and for war, 1865-1867; governor-general of Canada, 1872-1878; ambassador to Russia, 1879; transferred to Constantinople, 1881; viceroy of India, 1884; ambassador to Italy, 1888; ambassador to France, 1891; Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, 1891. During his governorship of Canada, Prince Edward Island entered Confederation; the Intercolonial Railway was opened from Quebec to Halifax; and the Royal Military College was established at Kingston. Dufferin had to meet the political situation created by the Pacific Scandal, a situation made the more difficult by his personal esteem for Sir John A. Macdonald. British Columbia had joined the Dominion in 1871, but there had been much dissatisfaction in the province over the delay in building the railway which was one of the terms of union. Dufferin visited the province in 1876 and succeeded by his tact and adroitness in calming the public mind. Bib.: Works: Journey from Oxford to Skibbereen; Letters from High Latitudes; Inquiry into State of Ireland; Irish Emigration; Speeches and Addresses, ed. by Milton. For biog., see Leggo, History of the Administration of Lord Dufferin in Canada; Stewart, Canada under Lord Dufferin; Black, The Marquess of Dufferin and Ava; Lyall, The Life of the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava; Dent, Can. Por.; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Dugas, Du Gua, or Du Guast, Sieur de Monts. See Monts.

Dugué de Boisbriant, Pierre (1675-1740). French commandant in the Illinois country, 1718-1724. In 1720 he built Fort Chartres, about sixteen miles north-west of Kaskaskia, and a mile from the Mississippi.

Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon (1636-1710). Born at St. Germain-en-Laye. Came to Canada, 1672. Returned to France, took part in the campaign in Flanders, and was present at the battle of Seneffe, 1664. Returned to Canada the latter year. Left Montreal for the west, 1678, and the following year took possession of the country of the Sioux for France. He presided over a meeting of the tribes at the head of Lake Superior, persuaded them to enter into a treaty of peace, and secured the fur trade in the Sioux country to the French. Rescued Father Hennepin from the Sioux, 1679. He had gone west without the permission of the authorities at Quebec, and when he returned in 1680 he was imprisoned by the Intendant Duchesneau for disobeying the king’s regulations. He was released, and went to France in the hope of obtaining the sanction of the Court for further explorations. In this, although he seems to have had the sympathy and support of Frontenac, he was unsuccessful, but was made post commander and agent to the tribes west and north of Lake Superior. He was successful in diverting much of the fur trade from the Hudson’s Bay Company to Montreal. His original explorations in the west covered a great deal of territory, along the south shore of Lake Superior and in the Sioux country south-west and west of the lake. He gained unusual influence over some of the western tribes. In 1683 he was sent by the governor, La Barre, to take possession of La Salle’s fort at St. Louis in the Illinois country, confiscate the goods, and bring them down to Montreal. The following year under instructions of the governor, he brought a number of Indians down to Niagara to join in a war against the Senecas. In 1686 he built and fortified a post at the outlet of Lake Huron. Commanded at Fort Frontenac, 1696, and later at Detroit. The city of Duluth named after him. Bib.: Margry, Découvertes et Etablissements des Français; Sieur Du Lhut (Minn. Hist. Coll., vol. 1); McLennan, Death of Duluth (R. S. C., 1903); Jesuit Relations, ed. by Thwaites) vol. 62; Roy, Du Lhut (Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4); Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Duncan, Alexander. Sailed to North West Coast with Colnett in 1788. Engaged in the sea-otter trade. He confirmed the discovery of Portlock and Dixon that the Queen Charlotte Islands were not part of the mainland.

Duncan, William. Sent out from England in 1856 by the Church of England Missionary Society; laboured among the Indians at Port Simpson for nearly five years; and in 1862 established a native industrial community at Metla Kahtla. As the result of a long and bitter controversy as to his aims and methods, he removed his colony to Alaska. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names; Arctander, Apostle of Alaska: the Story of William Duncan.

Duncombe, Charles. Practiced medicine at Burford Plains, near Brantford. Elected to the Legislature, 1824, and re-elected, 1836. He took an active part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838, and commanded several hundred rebels at Brantford. On the approach of Colonel MacNab with a party of militia, he retreated to a place called Scotland, where he was joined by about a thousand volunteers. Learning that the rebellion had collapsed he advised his men to disperse. After the failure of the Rebellion, escaped to the United States. In 1843 he was pardoned and returned to Canada, but remained only for a short time. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

Dundas, George (1819-1880). Lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, 1859-1869. Afterwards lieutenant-governor of St. Vincent, West India Islands, where he died.

Dundas. Town of Ontario, at the head of Burlington Bay. Founded 1801; incorporated, 1847. It was known for a time as “Coote’s Paradise.” Bib.: Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Dundas Street. Also known as the Governor’s Road. Built by Governor Simcoe; connected site of London with the village of Dundas. Afterwards extended to York. Originally intended to connect Montreal and the Detroit River. Place and road were named after the then secretary for the colonies.

Dunkin, Christopher (1811-1881). Born in London, England. Educated at the Universities of London and Glasgow. Emigrated to America; studied at Harvard University, and for a time tutor of Greek in that institution. Came to Canada about 1836, and engaged in newspaper work. Appointed secretary to the Education Commission, 1838, and subsequently secretary to the Post office Commission. Assistant-secretary for Lower Canada, 1841-1847; called to the bar, 1846. Unsuccessfully contested the county of Drummond for a seat in the Legislative Assembly, 1844, but elected to represent Drummond and Arthabaska, 1857. Defeated, 1861, but elected for the county of Brome, 1862. Retained his seat until Confederation, when elected for the same county to the House of Commons. At first an opponent of Confederation, but afterwards a strong supporter. Provincial treasurer of Quebec, 1867; entered the Dominion Cabinet as minister of agriculture, 1869. Appointed a judge of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1871; held office until his death. Name associated with the Canada Temperance Act, better known as the “Dunkin Act.” Bib.: Dent’s, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

Dunlop, William (1795?-1848). Born in Scotland. Served as a regimental surgeon in War of 1812 and in India. He was known as “Tiger Dunlop” because of his record as a tiger slayer in India. Came to Canada in 1826, with John Galt, and took part in the establishment of the Canada Company. In Scotland, had been the intimate of John Wilson (“Christopher North,” of Blackwood’s), Maginn, and Hogg, and had done some literary work, which he continued in Canada. Founded the Toronto Literary Club, 1836. Represented Huron in the Legislature, 1841-1846. See also Canada Company; Galt; Talbot. Bib.: Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada. For biog., see Lizars, Days of the Canada Company and Humours of ’37; Dent, Last Forty Years; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Morgan, Bib. Can.

Dunn, Lieutenant A. R. A Canadian who served in the Crimean War. Won his commission and the Victoria Cross for exceptional gallantry on the occasion of the charge of the Light Brigade. After the war retired from the service, returned to Canada and lived in Toronto. In 1858 joined the 100th Regiment (Royal Canadians) as major for service in the Indian Mutiny.

Dunn, John Henry. Came to Canada in 1820, from England. Appointed by Governor Head in 1824, receiver-general and member of Executive and Legislative Councils of Upper Canada, and again became receiver-general after the Union in 1841. He was a Moderate Reformer and had the confidence of Robert Baldwin. Defeated in Toronto in 1844. Died in London, 1854. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Dunn, Thomas (1731-1818). Engaged in mercantile life; came to Canada shortly after the conquest. In 1764 appointed a member of the first Legislative Council of Quebec. A member of the new Council formed under Quebec Act, and one of the five selected by Carleton for the Special Privy Council. On the passing of the Constitutional Act, appointed one of the first executive and legislative councillors of the Lower Province, and during five different periods acted as president of the Legislative Council. On departure of Sir Robert Milnes, in 1805, assumed the administration of the province and continued to act until the arrival of Sir James Craig in October, 1807. Again in 1811, during the interval between the departure of Sir James Craig and the arrival of Sir George Prevost, entrusted with the administration. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Dunning, John. See Ashburton.

Dunsmuir, James (1851-1920). Born at Port Vancouver. Robert Dunsmuir, his father, who developed the coal mines at Nanaimo, was a member of the British Columbia government. James Dunsmuir continued the coal-mining interests. Built Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, and sold it to the Canadian Pacific Railway Company in 1905. Represented East Yale in British Columbia Assembly, 1898-1902; premier and president of the Council, 1900-1902; lieutenant-governor, 1906-1909. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Dunvegan. A trading post on the left bank of the Peace River, about lat. 56°, and long. 118° 40´. Built by Archibald Norman McLeod for the North West Company about the beginning of the nineteenth century. It was named after the “cold, bleak, rock-built castle of the McLeods of Skye.” Daniel Williams Harmon stationed there, 1808-1810; Simon Fraser visited him on his way east from exploring the river that bears his name. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Duplessis-Bochart, Guillaume Guillemot. Sent to Canada, 1632, by the Company of New France to take possession of Quebec, captured by Kirke and now restored by King Charles. Used his influence with the Hurons to persuade them to take Fathers Brébeuf and Daniel with them to the scene of their labours on Georgian Bay. Led a trading expedition up the Ottawa River, 1636. Killed by the Iroquois at Three Rivers, 1651. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Duplessis-Mornay. See Mornay.

Duplessis, Pacifique. A Récollet missionary. Came to Canada with Champlain, 1615. In 1618 while stationed at Three Rivers was instrumental in suppressing an Indian conspiracy which might have ended the life of the little colony. Returned to France the same year. Came out again, 1619, and died the same year. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Dupont-Gravé. See Pont-Gravé.

Dupuy, Claude Thomas. Intendant of New France, 1726-1728. Although a man of some ability, was extremely pretentious and self-opinionated, and became involved in constant quarrels with the governor and the bishop. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903).

Duquesne de Menneville, Michel Ange, Marquis de. Appointed governor of New France, 1752, in succession to La Jonquière. His policy was to intercept communication between New England and the western Indians and thus to restore the Indians to dependence on France. In the spring of 1753 sent a force of a thousand men under Morin to the Ohio district; a fort was built at Presqu’île and another, Fort Le Bœuf, inland on Le Bœuf river. Disease made ravages among the troops, and while 300 were left to garrison the forts, the remainder were compelled to return to Montreal, and Duquesne’s plans for a further advance were frustrated. Nevertheless the Indians were brought into submission to the French. Improved the organization of the government of the colony, and through thorough discipline raised the efficiency of the colonial troops. Succeeded in 1755 by the Marquis de Vaudreuil. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, The Fight for Canada; Fiske, New France and New England.

Durell, Philip. Born in England. Entered the navy and became a captain in 1742. Seven years later he commanded the Gloucester, and later the Rochester. In 1755 he was promoted to the Terrible, and in May of that year sailed to America with Holbourne to reinforce Admiral Boscawen. Early in 1758 he was commander-in-chief of the fleet wintering at Halifax, and later took part in the siege of Louisbourg. Made a rear-admiral. The chart of the St. Lawrence made under his supervision was of immense service to Admiral Saunders in getting his fleet up to Quebec in 1759. Much of the information was incorporated in Captain Cook’s chart. Second in command under Saunders at Quebec. For his services in connection with the siege of Quebec, Durell was highly commended by Saunders. Made a vice-admiral in 1762, and shortly afterwards sent out to command the American station. Died at Halifax in August, 1766. Bib.: Smillie, The Achievements of Durell in 1759 (R. S. C., 1925); Wood, Logs of the Conquest of Canada and The Fight for Canada; Doughty, Siege of Quebec.

Durham, John George Lambton, Earl of (1792-1840). Entered British Parliament, 1814, for county of Durham, and won recognition as an advanced Reformer. Brought forward plan of parliamentary reform in 1821. Raised to peerage, 1828. Member of Grey’s ministry, 1830. Sent to St. Petersburg on special mission, 1833. Ambassador to Russia, 1836. Sent to Canada in 1838 to bring order out of the chaos of the Rebellion. His famous Report followed. His policy in Canada excited much opposition both in Great Britain and Canada. The House of Lords voted disapproval of some of his acts, and he took the extraordinary step of returning to England without either being recalled or obtaining the royal consent. Nevertheless the wisdom of his recommendations has since been abundantly justified. He was a man ahead of his time. In his view the Canadian Reformers were justified in demanding responsible government. He was impressed by the constitutional helplessness of the Assemblies in both Lower and Upper Canada. With unanswerable logic he revealed the absurdity of the plea that representative institutions in the mother country and in the colonies were two entirely different things. Representative government, he said, had been guaranteed by the Constitutional Act of 1791. Failure to settle the vexed question of the Clergy Reserves was, he held, one of the chief causes of the Rebellion of 1837-1838. He opposed the idea of giving Upper Canada, with a smaller population, the same number of members in the Legislature as Lower Canada, as both unfair and calculated to defeat its own purpose of English control when the relative populations should be reversed. With faith in the future of Canada, he looked to the confederation of all the provinces. “It would,” he said, “enable all the provinces to coöperate for all common purposes; and, above all, it would form a great and powerful people, possessing the means of securing good and responsible government for itself, and which, under the protection of the British Empire, might in some measure counterbalance the preponderant and increasing influence of the United States on the American continent.” Durham’s biographer, Stuart J. Reid, disposed of the story that Durham’s Report was actually written by Gibbon Wakefield and Charles Buller, both of whom accompanied Durham to Canada. Died at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, soon after his return. Bib.: Report on the Affairs of British North America; Haliburton, Reply to the Report of the Earl of Durham; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Garnett, The Authorship of Lord Durham’s Report; Christie, History of Lower Canada; Reid, Life and Letters of Lord Durham; Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie; Shortt, Lord Sydenham; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Bourinot, Lord Elgin.

Dutch Colonists. A number came to Canada as United Empire Loyalists from Pennsylvania and New York. Sabine’s Loyalists mentions six Van Buskirks who settled in Nova Scotia, besides such Dutch names as Van Cortlandt, Van de Burgh, Van Home, Van Norden, Van Wart, Van Wyck, Van Ambar, Van Blarcum, Van Voorst, and so forth, who came to either the Maritime Provinces or Upper Canada. Many Dutch farmers from Pennsylvania also settled in Upper Canada toward the end of the eighteenth century, and laid the foundations of the prosperous county of Waterloo and the town of Berlin (now Kitchener). Bib.: See Dunham, Trail of the Conestoga.

Duval, Jean. A locksmith who came with Champlain from France to Canada in 1608. He was the leader of a conspiracy to assassinate Champlain and turn the colony over to the Basques. The plot was discovered and Duval executed. Bib.: Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Duval, Jean Francois Joseph (1801-1881). Born in Quebec. Studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1823. Represented Quebec in the Assembly, 1830-1834. Appointed to the bench, 1839; judge of the Superior Court, 1852; a member of the Seigniorial Court, 1854; judge of the Queen’s Bench, 1855; chief-justice of the Queen’s Bench, 1864; retired, 1874. Died in Quebec. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Du Vignau, Nicolas. In 1612 Champlain met him in Paris. Du Vignau told him that he had reached the North Sea (Hudson Bay) by way of the River of the Algonquins (Ottawa river) and had seen European vessels there. Champlain took him back with him to Canada, and in 1613 they ascended the Ottawa together as far as Allumette Island where Tessouat, the Algonquin chief, had his village. Champlain repeated Du Vignau’s story to Tessouat, who indignantly branded it as a falsehood. “Turn the imposter over to us,” he cried, “and we will know how to deal with him.” Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Sulte, Valley of the Grand River (R. S. C., 1898).

Earthquake of 1663. Known in Canadian history as the “Great Earthquake.” The most extravagant accounts have come down as to the circumstances attending this earthquake, but it was probably the most serious disturbance of the earth’s crust, in Canadian territory, of which we have any record. It affected chiefly the valley of the St. Lawrence from Montreal to the gulf, a region more susceptible to seismic disturbance than any other in Eastern Canada. It has been described by Father Lalemant, by the Governor Avaugour, by Marie de l’Incarnation and others. Kingsford cites contemporary reports of similar phenomena in 1638 and 1766. An earthquake visited the same region in the spring of 1925. Bib.: Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France; Lalemant, Relation, 1663; Ragueneau, Vie de Catherine de St. Augustin; Marie de I’Incarnation, Lettres; Parkman, Old Régime; Kingsford, History of Canada; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Eastern Townships. That part of the province of Quebec lying along its southern border. Lord North in 1784 suggested that they might be settled with disbanded soldiers, but Dorchester thought it unwise to make close neighbours of the Loyalists and the men they had fought against. His plan was to leave the region in its wild state for a time and then settle it with French Canadians, who would serve as a buffer between the English settlers in Canada and the New Englanders. As a matter of fact many of the early settlers of the Townships came from Vermont, and it is only in comparatively recent times that, by a process of peaceful penetration, the French Canadians have gradually swamped the old English-speaking population. Bib.: Day, Pioneers of the Eastern Townships; Day, History of the Eastern Townships; Thomas, History of the Eastern Townships.

Eccles Hill. On May 25th, 1870, what was known as the Army of the Irish Republic, under “General” O’Neil, crossed the boundary into Canada at a point in the Eastern Townships known as Eccles Hill. O’Neil had accumulated arms and ammunition for 15,000 men, but only 800 turned up. Against him were a few Canadian militia and home guards, altogether two officers and seventy-one men, subsequently reinforced by about sixty militia. The Canadians held their position throughout the day, and toward evening Colonel Osborne Smith ordered the advance. The enemy broke in all directions and were soon in full flight across the boundary, where the Fenian leader O’Neil was arrested by United States troops sent somewhat belatedly to maintain order.

Echemin Indians. A tribe closely resembling the Micmacs of Nova Scotia, and inhabiting in the seventeenth century what is now eastern Maine and New Brunswick. They lived by hunting and fishing. In their relations with the whites they were inclined to take sides with the French rather than with the English. Bib.: Hodge, Indians of North America.

Edgar, Sir James David (1841-1899). Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1864. Elected to House of Commons, 1872. Sent on political mission to British Columbia in 1874, in connection with Canadian Pacific Railway. Returned to Parliament, 1884; elected Speaker of the House of Commons, 1896. Bib.: This Canada of Ours and Other Poems; The White Stone Canoe; Canada and its Capital. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Edgar, John. Commanded a British vessel on the Great Lakes, 1772-1775. In the latter year left the service and went into business at Detroit. Arrested by the British authorities on discovery that he was aiding the Americans with information and in other ways. Sent prisoner to Montreal, escaped in 1781, joined American navy in which he served to the close of the Revolutionary War. In 1784 established himself at Kaskaskia, where in 1825 he entertained Lafayette. Died, 1830. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Edmonton. Capital of province of Alberta. Situated on the North Saskatchewan. Occupies site of Edmonton House, or Fort Edmonton, of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Fort Augustus, of the North West Company, stood some miles below on the north bank of the Saskatchewan; built by Hughes, 1794; destroyed by the Blackfeet, 1807; rebuilt, 1810, and called New Fort Augustus, or sometimes Fort des Prairies. Fort Edmonton, built by Sutherland of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1795. Then the most westerly trading post, until Rocky Mountain House built by North West Company, 1799. Edmonton destroyed by Blackfeet, 1807; rebuilt by Rowand, 1808; abandoned, 1810, but reoccupied before 1819. It was on the route to both Athabaska Pass and Yellowhead Pass, and was visited by all the notable travellers who passed that way, Milton and Cheadle, Southesk, Paul Kane, David Douglas, Father De Smet, Dr. Hector, Sandford Fleming and G. M. Grant. The last remaining building of the fort was removed and destroyed when the Provincial Legislative Building was being erected. Bib.: Cameron, The City on the Saskatchewan.

Education. In New France was confined to the Jesuits’ College in Quebec, afterwards Laval University, and for girls to the convents. Schools, or academies as they were generally called, were established at Quebec, Montreal and other towns, soon after the cession of Canada to England, by clergymen and others, old countrymen or colonials from New England. None of them were self-supporting, and depended more or less upon government grants. In Lower Canada the foundation was laid of what was to become the admirable system of classical colleges and public schools of Quebec. In Upper Canada, Simcoe and Strachan exerted themselves to provide grammar schools and colleges. Simcoe set apart half a million acres of public land for the establishment of a university and four royal grammar schools. In 1807, an Act was passed providing a school in each of the eight districts. By 1845, these had been extended to twenty-five schools. At the same time private and subscription schools, largely elementary, were springing up all over the province. In 1823, a provincial board of education was created. In Nova Scotia, Joseph Howe had advocated compulsory education and an undenominational provincial university. He brought in a public school bill, but could get no support for it, and it was not until some years later that the province made provision for elementary education. Higher education had been provided for in the establishment of Kings’ College in 1790 and Dalhousie in 1820. New Brunswick was equally slow in providing schools, the first Act having been passed in 1805 by which a grammar school was established at St. John, and provision made for country schools. The provincial university dates from 1800, when a provincial charter was granted for a college at Fredericton. Under the terms of the British North America Act, the subject of education was assigned to the provinces. The school systems of the western provinces are based largely on that of Ontario. The history of education in Canada is associated particularly with the names of John Strachan, Egerton Ryerson, Sir William Dawson, George Monro Grant, Sir Daniel Wilson and P. J. O. Chauveau. Among the more notable private benefactions for education, the Leonard Foundation, created in 1916 and enlarged in 1920, provides a fund of $500,000 for scholarships in a number of Canadian schools and colleges designed to help ambitious students who need financial assistance. The trust was established and endowed by Colonel and Mrs. R. W. Leonard of St. Catharines. For other important gifts to education, see McGill University; Dalhousie University; Macdonald College; and University of Toronto. See also Universities; Separate Schools; Manitoba School Question; Frontier College. Bib.: Canada: An Ency., vols. 2, 3, and 4; Chauveau, L’Instruction Publique; Dawson, Fifty Years’ Work in Canada; Hodgins, Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada; Ryerson, Story of My Life; Meilleur, L’Education du Bas-Canada; Millar, Educational System of Ontario; Ross, Universities of Canada; Education in the Canadas (Archives Report, 1899).

Election Laws. A bill in regard to corrupt practices in elections was brought before the Canadian Legislature in 1841, but was rejected by the Legislative Council. The following year the Baldwin-LaFontaine government introduced a broader measure and secured its adoption. In subsequent legislation, before and after Confederation, provision was made for simultaneous voting, the secret ballot, and other reforms. Bib.: Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks.

Elgin, James Bruce, eighth Earl of (1811-1863). Born in London. Sat for two years in the House of Commons, then accepted the governorship of Jamaica; resigned in 1846, and the following year sent out to Canada as governor-general. It proved to be a very fortunate choice, as Elgin was admirably fitted by character and temperament to demonstrate in practice the soundness of Durham’s principles of colonial government. He realized, as some of his predecessors in office had failed to, that responsible government in Canada need not be inconsistent with his position as representative of the British Crown. He also made it clear that as governor-general he would show neither favouritism nor antipathy to any political party, but would give the government of the day all constitutional support frankly and without reserve. He found in the Parliament of Canada men of exceptional ability on both sides of politics, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks, Morin, MacNab, John A. Macdonald, Chauveau, Blake, and John Hillyard Cameron, and he coöperated loyally with them in establishing a real government of the people. He showed himself even broader than Durham in his attitude toward the French, and urged upon the Imperial authorities the folly of attempting to restrict the use of their language. He was “deeply convinced of the impolicy of all such attempts to denationalize the French. Generally speaking they produce the opposite effect from that intended, causing the flame of national prejudice and animosity to burn more fiercely.” Elgin’s one real antipathy was for Papineau, a man whom he regarded as “actuated by the most malignant passions, irritated vanity, disappointed ambition and national hatred.” Keenly alive to the dangerous effect of the Imperial navigation laws upon Canadian prosperity, he pressed for their repeal, which was tardily granted in 1849. Some years later he succeeded in bringing about another measure which he had very much at heart, the reciprocity treaty with the United States. In 1849 Elgin found himself confronted with a difficult problem in the Rebellion Losses bill, the passage of which had aroused intense indignation among its opponents. His refusal either to dissolve the Legislature or reserve the bill for consideration of the Imperial authorities led to disgraceful scenes in Montreal. The Parliament buildings were burnt and he himself was insulted by the mob. As Bourinot has said, Elgin’s action was both wise and the only thing he could have properly done under the rules of parliamentary government. He gave his whole-hearted support to the movement to establish a broad and efficient educational system. Personally he was not in favour of disassociating education and religion. Elgin’s relations with Canadian public men were singularly happy. His genial spirit and natural tact made it easy for him to get along with men of all political parties. For Baldwin and LaFontaine he seems to have felt particular admiration and respect. For Canada itself he conceived a very real affection. His farewell speech in Quebec in 1854 breathes a spirit of regret that seems to be altogether sincere. After his return from Canada, Elgin was sent on a diplomatic mission to China, secured the treaty of Tientsin, and incidentally negotiated the treaty of Yeddo with Japan. He became postmaster-general in the Palmerston government; was sent on a second mission to China; and finally went to India as governor-general. He died at Dhurmsala in the Kangra valley, beneath the snow-clad Himalayas. Bib.: Walrond, Letters of Elgin; Wrong, The Earl of Elgin; LeMoine, Le Comte d’Elgin (R. S. C., 1894); Dent, Can. Por., and Last Forty Years; Turcotte, Canada sous l’Union; Hincks, Reminiscences; Bourinot, Lord Elgin; Kennedy, Lord Elgin.

Eliza, Francisco. Commanded Spanish expedition to Nootka, and made an attempt to explore Juan de Fuca Strait, 1790. Sent Fidalgo to examine the northern coast same year. Carried on extensive explorations in 1791, returning to Monterey the following year. Bib.: Bancroft, North-West Coast.

Ellesmere Island. Northernmost of the great islands in the Arctic archipelago. Smith Sound, Kane Basin and Kennedy Channel divide it from Greenland. Named after Francis Leveson-Gower, first Earl of Ellesmere (1800-1857), who was president of the Royal Geographical Society, 1854-1855. Bib.: White, Place Names Northern Canada.

Ellice, Alexander. Born at Knockleith, Scotland, in 1743, a Scotch merchant of good family, he came to America and engaged in business in New York. At the beginning of the Revolutionary War he removed to Montreal, where he founded the firm of Inglis, Ellice & Company. About 1780 he went to England to take charge of that end of the firm’s business, his brother Robert remaining as manager of the Montreal office. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xix.

Ellice, Edward (1781-1863). Son of Alexander (q.v.). Came to Canada in 1803. Seignior of Beauharnois. An influential London merchant, closely associated for many years with the North West Company, and an active participant in the negotiations that led up to the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies in 1821. He suggested to the colonial secretary in 1822 the union of Upper and Lower Canada. Gave evidence on the fur trade before the parliamentary committee on the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1857. He was a director of the Canada Company. Represented Coventry in the British House of Commons, 1818-1863; filled the office of secretary to the treasury, 1830-1832; secretary for war, 1832-1834. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Elmsley, John (1762-1805). Born in the suburbs of London, he was admitted to the bar of the Middle Temple in 1790, and in 1796 came to Canada and succeeded Osgoode as chief-justice of Upper Canada, where he actively interested himself in laying the foundations of the administration of justice in the youthful province. Promoted chief-justice of Lower Canada, 1802; also a member of the Executive Council and president of the Legislative Council. He died at Montreal. One of the townships in the county of Lanark, Ontario, perpetuates his name. Bib.: Audet, Les juges en chef de la Province de Québec (Revue du Droit, 1925); Read, Lives of the Judges.

Embargo. Pronounced by President Jefferson in 1808 on shipping of the United States, to prevent trading with England or France. Led to extensive smuggling through Canada, and stimulated Canadian trade and ocean commerce. Bib.: Edgar, General Brock.

England, Richard. Born in Ireland. Joined the army as an ensign in 1766, in the 47th infantry. Promoted to major in 1781. Two years later transferred to the 24th regiment as lieutenant-colonel. In command at Detroit, 1792, and the last British commandant there. Left on the surrender of the fort to the Americans in 1796. Returned to England and promoted major-general the same year. For a time governor of Plymouth. Became lieutenant-general. Died, 1812. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

English Settlers in Canada. First came from New England and New York, after cession of Canada in 1760. Many became merchants in Montreal. Their selfishness and intolerant attitude, in some cases, toward the French aroused the indignation of both Murray and Carleton. With them were a number of disbanded soldiers. About a quarter of a century later English stock of a different quality came in the United Empire Loyalists from the revolting colonies. Thereafter English settlers came from the old land, and in increasing numbers. At the first census after Confederation there were 706,369 people in Canada of English origin, and by the census of 1921 there were 2,545,496, or 28.96 per cent, of the total population.

Enos, General Roger (1729-1808). Commanded Vermont troops in 1781 on the Lake Champlain frontier; and involved with Ethan and Ira Allen (q.v.) in the scheme to bring Vermont back to British allegiance. A few years later he proposed to settle two Canadian townships with settlers from his own side of the border. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Epidemics. See Smallpox; Scurvy; Cholera.

Equal Rights Association. Formed in Toronto, in 1889, to secure the disallowance of the Jesuits’ Estates Act, and generally to oppose what were described as the “political encroachments of ultramontanism.” Among the principal founders were D’Alton McCarthy, William E. O’Brien, and Clarke Wallace. In 1894 a somewhat similar organization was founded known as the Protestant Protective Association. Bib.: Biggar, Sir Oliver Mowat.

Erie Indians. The name signifies long-tailed, or people of the panther. A large tribe of Iroquoian stock, inhabiting in the seventeenth century the country between Lake Erie and the Ohio. Their lands adjoined those of the Neutral Nation west of Lake Erie. They lived in sedentary towns and villages and cultivated the soil. After a long war the Eries were practically wiped out by the Iroquois in 1656, the few survivors being adopted into the Iroquois confederacy. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Erie, Lake. Area 10,000 square miles. Discovered by Brébeuf and Chaumonot, 1640. It is possible that the lake may have been first seen by white men at a still earlier date, when the Franciscan friar, La Roche Daillon, visited the Neutral nation, 1626, but there is no direct evidence. The lake is mentioned under its present name in Lalemant’s Relation of 1641, as well as in that of Ragueneau, 1648. La Salle’s Griffon was the first ship to sail its waters, 1679. First clearly shown on Sanson map of 1650. Bib.: Chaumonot, Vie; Harris, Early Missions; Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada; Coyne, Exploration of the Great Lakes.

Ermatinger, Francis. Member of a family associated with the fur trade. His father and uncle had been prominent fur traders at Sault Ste. Marie. He and his brother Edward had been equally prominent in the fur trade of the Pacific coast. Under orders of Sir George Simpson he carried out a difficult journey through California in 1841. Edward accompanied David Douglas, the botanist, on his journey east through Athabaska Pass in 1826. Bib.: Simpson, Journey Round the World; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Edward Ermatinger, York Factory Express Journal, 1827-1828 (R. S. C., 1912).

Eskimo. American aborigines, formerly occupying practically the entire coast of North America from Newfoundland around to the Aleutian Islands; now confined to the northern coast of the continent, and the Arctic Islands. They call themselves Innuit, meaning “people,” the name “Eskimo” having been given them by some of their Indian neighbours, and signifying “eaters of raw flesh.” Their first contact with white men was with the Scandinavians in Greenland in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Most of the Labrador and Greenland Eskimo have been Christianized by the Moravian and Danish missionaries. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Reclus, Primitive Folk; United States Bureau of Ethnology, Reports.

Esquimalt. From an Indian name meaning “a place gradually shoaling.” Sir James Douglas (1842) spells it Is-whoy-malth. The Spanish naval officer Quimper had named the place Puerto de Cordova in 1790. Galiano and Valdes were there in 1792. Naval station four miles from Victoria, Vancouver Island. Naval hospital built, 1855; land reserved for a naval depot, 1859; naval yard established, 1864; dry dock completed, 1887; naval station taken over from Admiralty by Canadian government, 1905. Once suggested as the site of a city. Royal Naval College moved there after the Halifax explosion, 1918; closed, 1922. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Esten, James C. Palmer (1806-1864). Born in Bermuda. Educated at the Charter House, London; called to the English bar. Came to Canada, 1836, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1838. Served as a volunteer during Rebellion of 1837. Practised his profession at Toronto. Appointed vice-chancellor, 1849. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

European and North American Railway. Designed to run from Shediac on the Straits of Northumberland through St. John to the United States border, where it would connect with American railways. An English firm, Peto, Brassy and Betts, offered to build the road in 1852. New Brunswick’s subsidy amounted to £20,000 a year for twenty years and a million acres of land. The line from Shediac to St. John was completed in 1860. Many years afterward connection was made with the American railways at the Maine boundary. Bib.: Hannay, Wilmot, Tilley.

European War. See War of 1914-1918.

Eustache, Sir J. R. Born, 1795. Educated at St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. Entered the army; served in Upper Canada in command of the 19th Light Dragoons; present at the battle of Lundy’s Lane and at the storming of Fort Erie; knighted for distinguished services. Took part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in Lower Canada; high-sheriff of Kildare, 1848; lieutenant-general, 1859. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Evans, James (1801-1846). Born in Kingston-upon-Hull, England. Emigrated to Canada; opened a school near l’Orignal, and about 1828 moved to Rice Lake, where he entered the Methodist ministry, and began his lifelong work among the Indians. In 1840 given charge of missionary work in the North-West, with headquarters at Norway House. Had already devoted much time to the study of the native languages, and while at Norway House invented the Cree syllabic characters, a simple, phonetic system, by means of which the Indian was taught to read with surprising facility. At first cast his own type, built his own press, and printed on birchbark. Later obtained more effective materials, and set up catechisms, hymn-books, and portions of the Bible in syllabic. Bib.: Young, The Apostle of the North; Maclean, James Evans, Inventor of the Syllabic System; Carroll, James Evans in the Methodist Magazine, October, 1882; Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages.

Examiner. Newspaper published at Toronto. Established by Sir Francis Hincks in 1838. It was the principal organ of the Clear Grits, and strongly supported the movement for responsible government.

Executive Council. Provided by the Quebec Act. Under the Constitutional Act it was given to Upper Canada as well. Its members appointed by the governor and responsible only to him. Existed also in the Maritime provinces before Confederation under similar conditions. Its irresponsibility to the people condemned by Durham and Sydenham. Under terms of British North America Act continued in provinces, but responsible to the Assembly. In the Dominion became the Privy Council (q.v.).

Exhibitions. The first industrial exhibition held in Canada, and probably the first in the world, was that of 1737, promoted by the Intendant Hocquart. It included fruits and grains, woods and furs, and the products of the mines and the fisheries. The exhibition was afterwards sent to France. A provincial exhibition was held in Toronto in 1846; Ottawa had an exhibition in 1878; Montreal in 1880; Halifax in 1881; and St. John in 1883. Since then many other cities and towns have used this means of illustrating the industrial resources of the locality and the country. The exhibitions at Toronto, Ottawa and several other Canadian cities, are annual. Canada has also been largely represented at all the great international exhibitions such as those at Chicago, San Francisco and Wembley. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada.

Extradition. Negotiated by Sydenham with the United States, and embodied in the Ashburton treaty, 1842. See Article X and explanatory note (Treaties with the United States affecting Canada). Provided for the mutual surrender of fugitives from justice. Did not apply to political offences. An Imperial Act was passed in 1870. The Canadian Extradition Act, 1886, applied to any foreign state with which there was an extradition arrangement. Extradition is covered by the Revised Statutes of Canada, Chap. 155.

Faillon, Abbé Michel Étienne (1799-1870). Historian. Born in France. Entered the Sulpician Order. Came to Canada in 1854. Returned to France about 1865 and published there his history of Canada. Bib.: Works: Vie de Mme. d’ Youville; Vie de Mlle. Mance; Vie de Mlle. Le Ber; Histoire de la Colonie Française en Canada. For biog., see Desmazures, L’Abbé Faillon: Sa Vie et ses Œuvres.

Falconbridge, Sir Glenholme (1846-1920). Born at Drummondville, Ontario. Educated at the University of Toronto, graduating, 1866. Called to the bar, 1871; Q. C., 1885. Appointed judge of the Queen’s Bench, Ontario, 1887; chief-justice, 1900. Knighted, 1909. Was a member of the commissions to revise the Statutes of Ontario, and to collect and revise the Imperial Statutes affecting civil rights in Ontario. Wrote metrical translations of Latin and German poets. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Falkland, Lucius Bentinck, Viscount. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1840-1846. He came out to Nova Scotia as a young man, with little political experience. His policy, which proved unworkable, was to call to his council men representing all shades of political opinion. Bitterly attacked by Joseph Howe, he returned to England in 1846, and was appointed governor of Bombay. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Family Compact. A group of Tory leaders in Upper Canada, so nicknamed by their political opponents because they held power as a distinct group, allied by bonds of political, social, and religious sympathy. Term also used in other provinces, in connection with somewhat similar conditions. Characterizing it in his Report, Lord Durham says: “Fortified by family connection, and the common interest felt by all who held, and all who desired, subordinate offices, that party was thus erected into a solid and permanent power, controlled by no responsibility, subject to no serious change, exercising over the whole government of the province an authority utterly independent of the people and its representatives, and possessing the only means of influencing either the government at home, or the colonial representative of the Crown.” In Upper Canada they came into power in the days of Simcoe. In Lower Canada their origin goes back to the beginnings of British rule. Disappeared finally as a political force with the establishment of responsible government. See also Strachan, John; MacNab, Sir Allan Napier; Robinson, Sir John Beverley; Mackenzie, William Lyon. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Durham, Report; Mackenzie, Sketches of Canada; Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Robinson, Life of Sir John Beverley Robinson; Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie; Shortt, Lord Sydenham; Bourinot, Elgin; Parkin, Macdonald; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Wallace, The Family Compact.

Fanning, David (1755-1825). Born in Virginia, he commanded a Loyalist corps in the Revolution, and gained the reputation of a daring and resourceful leader. Came to New Brunswick, 1786. Removed to Nova Scotia, 1799. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Fanning, Edmund (1737-1818). Born on Long Island, New York. Studied law and practised in North Carolina. Returned to New York, and in 1777 raised a corps of Loyalists known as the King’s American Regiment. In 1782 surveyor-general of New York. Removed to Nova Scotia, and was lieutenant-governor, 1783-1786; in 1786 became governor of Prince Edward Island, holding the office until 1804. Rose to the rank of general in the army, 1808. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Farrer, Edward (1850-1916). A brilliant Canadian journalist. Associated with the Toronto Globe as chief editorial writer. Advocated annexation of Canada to the United States. Issued a pamphlet on the subject in 1891, which Sir John Macdonald used against the Liberals in the election of that year. Bib.: Canadian Who’s Who.

Fathers of Confederation. This term has been applied to those who attended the Quebec Conference in 1864, and represented the Legislatures and people of their respective colonies in the negotiations leading up to Confederation. In the following list they are grouped under the colonies they represented. Canada: Sir Étienne P. Taché, John A. Macdonald, Georges É. Cartier, William McDougall, George Brown, Alexander T. Galt, Alexander Campbell, Oliver Mowat, Hector L. Langevin, James Cockburn, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, J. C. Chapais. Nova Scotia: Charles Tupper, W. A. Henry, R. B. Dickey, Jonathan McCully, A. C. Archibald. New Brunswick: S. L. Tilley, John M. Johnson, Peter Mitchell, Charles Fisher, Edward Chandler, W. H. Steeves, John H. Gray. Newfoundland: F. B. T. Carter, John Ambrose Shea. Prince Edward Island: John Hamilton Grey, Edward Palmer, W. H. Pope, George Coles, T. Heath Haviland, Edward Whelan, A. A. McDonald. Bib.: Hammond, Confederation and its Leaders.

Fénelon, François de Salignac. Sulpician missionary sent by Laval to the Iroquois north of Lake Ontario. Brother of the famous archbishop of Cambrai. Established a school for Indians on the island of Montreal. He attacked Frontenac in a sermon, and was summoned before the Council, sent to France and censured by the king. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac; Garneau, Histoire du Canada.

Fenety, George Edward. Born at Halifax in 1812. Entered journalism in the office of Joseph Howe’s Nova Scotian, 1829. Spent some years on American newspapers; then went to St. John, New Brunswick, where he founded the Commercial News, 1839, described as “the first penny paper in the British Empire.” Queen’s printer of New Brunswick, 1863-1895. Bib.: Political Notes; Imperial Federation; Recollections of Joseph Howe. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Fenian Raids. The Fenian Brotherhood is said to have been formed about 1858 in Ireland and the United States, the object being to liberate Ireland from its connection with England, and establish a republic. A history of the movement in Ireland will be found in McCarthy’s History of our Own Times, and in O’Leary’s Recollections of Fenianism. Early in 1866 the American branch of the Brotherhood planned an invasion of Canada. The Canadian militia was called out, but the invasion was postponed. In April, the New Brunswick border was threatened, and troops marched to the defence of St. Andrew’s and St. Stephen. The Fenians thought better of it. Late in May another party, under one O’Neil, crossed from Buffalo to Fort Erie and advanced to Ridgeway, where they were driven back. In 1870 the same O’Neil led his followers into Quebec, but was again repulsed. In 1871 he made a similar attempt in the West, but a detachment of United States troops from Fort Pembina followed, arrested him, and dispersed his followers. In the negotiations leading up to the Treaty of Washington, 1871, Canada claimed compensation from the United States for the Fenian Raids. Through some oversight the claims were not included in the terms of reference and were withdrawn, the British government assuming responsibility for losses sustained in Canada. The United States government, although pressing for settlement of the Alabama Claims (q.v.), undertook no responsibility for the Fenian Raids. In New Brunswick the Raids had the effect of influencing the electorate towards Confederation. They were used also as an argument for retaining British troops in Canada. An aftermath of the earlier Fenian Raids was the murder of Thomas D’Arcy McGee (q.v.) in Ottawa, 1868. Bib.: Somerville, Narrative of the Fenian Invasion of Canada; Campbell, The Fenian Invasions of Canada of 1866 and 1870; Dent, Last Forty Years; Correspondence Relating to the Fenian Invasion, Ottawa, 1869; Trials of the Fenian Prisoners at Toronto Who Were Captured at Fort Erie, C. W., in June, 1866, ed. by George R. Gregg and E. P. Roden; McMicken, Fenian Raid on Manitoba (Manitoba Hist. and Sc. Society, 1888); Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Macdonald, Troublous Times in Canada; Denison, Soldiering in Canada and The Fenian Raid on Fort Erie; Cumberland, Fenian Raid of 1866 (R.S.C. 1910); Pierce, The Fenian Raid.

Ferland, Jean Baptiste Antoine (1805-1865). Canadian historian. Educated at Nicolet College, where he afterwards became professor of arts, rhetoric and philosophy, and appointed Superior of the college in 1847. Member of faculty of Laval University, 1855-1865. Bib.: Works: Cours d’Histoire du Canada; Opuscules; La Gaspésie; Joseph-Octave Plessis; Voyage au Labrador. For biog., see Cyc. Am. Biog.; Bibaud, Pan. Can.; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Festubert, Battle of. In May, 1915, while General Foch was concentrating what was then a tremendous artillery bombardment on the German lines between Carency and La Targette, Sir Douglas Haig supported the French attack by operations in the neighbourhood of Festubert. In these the part played by the Canadians consisted in the capture, at ruinous cost, of two positions known as the Orchard and K5. In 1915 the British artillery support was insignificant as compared with the resources of the enemy; it was so in guns, and much more so in ammunition. And our airmen were not yet in a position to supply much information as to the German strength. As a result they fell into cleverly designed traps, which took a terrible toll before they could be won through. In the end they won their objectives, but “Sir John French was convinced of the expensive futility of further action.” The battle added to the reputation of the Canadians, and prepared them for the more brilliant and profitable operations that were yet to come. Bib.: Hunter, Battle of Festubert (Canada in the Great World War, vol. iii).

Fidalgo, Salvador. Accompanied Eliza to North-West Coast, 1790; founded a Spanish settlement in Fuca Straits, 1792, and removed the post the same year to Nootka. Still there in 1793 when Vancouver visited the place. Bib.: Bancroft, History of the North-West Coast.

Fidler, Peter (1769-1822). Entered service of Hudson’s Bay Company, about 1791. Carried on extensive explorations and surveys in the North-West. Left a series of manuscript journals, covering the records of his explorations for over a quarter of a century. These are said to be in the archives of the Hudson’s Bay Company in London. Also left an eccentric will, of which Bryce gives a synopsis. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Tyrrell, Peter Fidler, 1769-1822 (R. S. C., 1913).

Fiedmont, Jacquot de. A French engineer under Montcalm. Fortified the bridges over the St. Charles river at Quebec. Directed artillery fire against the British camp. Bib.: Casgrain, Wolfe-Montcalm.

Findlay Island. In the Arctic archipelago. Named by Richards in 1853 after J. H. Findlay, an eminent English cartographer and for many years a member of the council of the Royal Geographical Society. Sverdrup, who commanded an important Arctic expedition in the Fram, 1898-1902, erroneously named the island “King Christian.” The name “Findlay” has been confirmed by the Geographic Board of Canada. Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Finlay, Hugh. Appointed by Sir Guy Carleton a member of his Council. In 1776 associated with Adam Mabane, Thomas Dunn and others in an investigation of the affairs of the province. In 1784 advocated the establishment of a system of free schools. Deputy postmaster-general of Canada about 1776-1788. Letters were then delivered throughout the province by walking postmen. Mails were carried by sailing packets to and from Quebec, Halifax and St. John. Finlay was one of the leaders of the English element in Quebec, and represented their views in a letter to the Home government. Bib.: Shortt and Doughty, Canadian Constitutional Documents.

Finlay, James. One of the pioneer fur traders from Montreal in the West. He reached the Saskatchewan about 1767, and is mentioned by Matthew Cocking of the Hudson’s Bay Company as having a trading post there. He was at Fort des Prairies in 1776, where Alexander Henry visited him that year. Finlay returned to Montreal in 1785, and became an influential merchant of the town. Bib.: Mackenzie, History of the fur Trade in his Voyages; Hendry’s Journal (R. S. C., 1907); Cocking’s Journal (R. S. C., 1908).

Finlayson, Duncan. A chief factor in the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1832. Served on the Pacific coast, 1831-1837. Governor of Assiniboia, 1839-1844. Described by Alexander Ross as a just man of liberal principles, knowing nothing of party or its objects. Established a rudimentary judicial system in the colony. Died in England about 1861. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Finlayson, Roderick (1818-1892). Born in Scotland, he joined the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1837, and saw service on the Pacific coast at Forts Taku, Stikine and Simpson. In 1843 he accompanied Douglas to Vancouver Island to build Fort Camosun (afterwards Victoria), and succeeded Charles Ross in command of the post the following year. Made a chief factor in 1859. He became chief accountant for the Western department of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and held the position until 1862. Member of the Legislative Council of Vancouver Island, 1851-1863. He left a valuable journal of the fur trade on the Pacific coast. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia; Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names; Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Fireships. Used by the French against the British fleet before Quebec in 1759. They did no damage, partly owing to mismanagement on the part of the French officers, and partly because of the resourcefulness and bravery of the English sailors, who coolly towed the fireships ashore. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Fish Creek. About ten miles from Batoche, in Saskatchewan. Scene of an engagement in the Rebellion of 1885 between Riel’s forces and those under General Middleton. Gabriel Dumont had prepared an ambush in a deep ravine. The ambush failed, but it took some time to clear the rebels out of the coulee. Bib.: Boulton, Reminiscences of North-West Rebellions.

Fisher, Charles (1808-1880). Born in Fredericton. Educated at King’s College and called to the bar, 1833. Contested York for the New Brunswick Assembly, 1834, but defeated. Elected for York, 1837, and continued to hold the seat with slight intervals until after Confederation. Entered the New Brunswick government, 1848, but resigned, 1850, owing to a difference with the lieutenant-governor. Appointed a delegate to the Portland Railway Convention, 1850. Became premier and attorney-general in the first purely Liberal government formed in New Brunswick, 1851. Resigned, 1856; in the following year resumed office and remained at the head of affairs until 1861. Appointed a delegate to the Trade Convention at Detroit, 1865. Again entered the government as attorney-general, 1866. Represented New Brunswick as one of the delegates to the Quebec and Westminster Conferences. Represented York in the first Dominion House of Commons. Appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of his native province, 1868. Died in Fredericton. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Fisher, Frederick. Lance-Corporal, 13th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. On April 23rd, 1915, in the neighbourhood of St. Julien, he went forward with the machine-gun of which he had charge, under heavy fire, and most gallantly assisted in covering the retreat of a battery. Later he went forward again to the firing line and was killed while bringing his machine-gun into action, under very heavy fire, in order to cover the advance of supports.

Fisher, Sydney Arthur (1850-1921). Educated McGill University and Trinity College, Cambridge. Sat for Brome in House of Commons, 1882-1891 and 1896-1911; minister of agriculture, 1896-1911. Member of the Canadian Historical Manuscripts Commission, 1907; member of the Commission of Conservation, 1909. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Fisheries Question. In one form or another runs through the history of Canada from its earliest days. The fisheries of the Grand Banks, the Gulf and the coast drew the Basques, English, French and Portuguese across the Atlantic before the days of Jacques Cartier. They formed the backbone of the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland. Fishermen of New England had been drawing rich harvests not only from the Banks but from the inshore fisheries of what is now Canada before the Revolution. In the peace negotiations the representatives of the United States tried to secure the perpetual right to use these inshore fisheries, but without success. By the treaty of 1818 the United States were granted limited privileges of taking, curing and drying fish on certain defined coasts of British North America. In 1854 the privilege of fishing in Canadian waters was granted to American fishermen in exchange for commercial reciprocity, but the privilege lapsed with the abrogation of the reciprocity treaty in 1866. In the negotiations for the treaty of Washington, 1871, the British government acknowledged and supported Canada’s exclusive right to the inshore fisheries. The Americans offered $1,000,000 for the fisheries in perpetuity, which was refused. They then suggested a limited reciprocity, which was also unacceptable. Finally, fishing rights were granted to the United States for a term of years in return for certain reciprocal advantages including money compensation. By the Halifax Award of 1877 the latter was fixed at $5,500,000. Bib.: Isham, Fishery Question, its Origin and Present Situation; Bourinot, Fishery Question, its Imperial Importance; Elliott, United States and the North-Eastern Fisheries; Ricci, Fisheries Dispute and Annexation to Canada.

FitzGibbon, James (1780-1863). Born in Ireland. Joined the Tarbert Fencibles, 1798; served in Holland the following year, and in 1801 present at the battle of Copenhagen. The same year came to Canada with the 49th Regiment, and served under Brock with distinction in the War of 1812. In command of the British at Beaver Dam. It was to FitzGibbon that Laura Secord (q.v.) brought her famous message. In 1822 appointed assistant adjutant-general; and in 1827 clerk of the House of Assembly. Commissioned as colonel of the Second West York Regiment, 1831, and took an active part in the suppression of the Rebellion of 1837. Returned to England, where in 1850 he was made a military knight of Windsor. Bib.: FitzGibbon, A Veteran of 1812; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Read, Rebellion of 1837; Lizars, Humours of ’37; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Fitzpatrick, Sir Charles (1853-). Born in Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law, and called to the bar, 1876; Q. C., 1893; chief counsel for Louis Riel, 1885, and took part in several other famous trials; represented Quebec county in provincial Assembly, 1890-1896; and in House of Commons, 1896-1906; solicitor-general, 1896-1901; minister of justice, 1902-1906; chief-justice of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1906-18. Lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1918-1923. K. C. M. G., 1907; G. C. M. G., 1911; Imperial Privy Councillor, 1908. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Fleet, British, before Quebec. Under the general command of Admiral Charles Saunders (q.v.), sailed for the St. Lawrence from Louisbourg in June, 1759, bringing Wolfe and his little army for the siege of Quebec. With the help of charts and pilots, the fleet was brought safely up the river, and finally anchored in sight of the citadel. In July a portion of the fleet was successfully sailed up past the town, and by the end of August Admiral Holmes had a dozen vessels above Quebec. It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of the fleet in making possible the military steps that led to the Battle of the Plains. Colonel Wood goes so far as to say that the fleet was the dominating factor in the siege, the army being nothing much more than a landing party on a large scale. Toward the end of October the fleet sailed for England, taking with it the body of Wolfe, fallen in the hour of victory. The following spring it again sailed for the St. Lawrence, and arrived before Quebec in time to nullify the victory of Lévis at Ste. Foy, and make certain the final conquest of Canada. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec; Wood, Logs of Naval Conquest of Canada; Wood, The Fight for Canada; Bradley, The Fight with France for North America; Wrong, The Fall of Canada.

Fleming, Sir Sandford (1827-1915). Born at Kirkaldy, Scotland. Came to Canada in a sailing ship in 1845. Made his way from Quebec to Peterborough by way of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa, the Rideau Canal and Lake Ontario, and by farmer’s cart from Cobourg to Peterborough. Was for a time employed on the surveys for the Northern Railway. Chief engineer of the Intercolonial Railway, 1864-1876; and of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1871-1880; in the latter he was closely associated with Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), and George Stephen (Lord Mount Stephen); chancellor of Queen’s University, 1880-1915; president of the Royal Society of Canada, 1888-1889. To his initiative and persistent enthusiasm were mainly due the establishment of a system of universal or cosmic time; the laying of the Pacific cable, as part of an inter-imperial telegraph service; the founding of the Canadian Institute; and the building of the memorial tower at Halifax to commemorate the opening of the first colonial legislature. In 1893-1894 he made a trip around the world. His latter years were spent in Ottawa, to the end devoted to plans for public betterment. He worked untiringly for the advancement of the Canadian people and for the strengthening of the ties binding together the scattered members of the British Empire. “Behind all his efforts was the firm conviction that a united empire was a step in the direction of world peace.” Bib.: Works: The Intercolonial; England and Canada; and numerous historical and scientific papers. See Bibliog. of Royal Society (R. S. C., 1894); Johnson, The All Red Line; Grant, Ocean to Ocean. For biog., see Burpee, Sandford Fleming: Empire Builder, and bibliography therein.

Fleurimont. See Noyelles.

Flowerdew, Gordon Muriel. Lieutenant, Strathcona’s Horse. Victoria Cross. On March 30th, 1918, north-east of Bois de Moreuil, he commanded a squadron detailed for special service. Confronted with two lines of the enemy each about sixty strong, with machine-guns in the centre and flanks, he carried out on his own initiative, and with most important results, a small edition of the charge of the Light Brigade. Leading his men he charged through both lines of the enemy, about two hundred yards apart, and wheeling about galloped at them again. The enemy broke and retired, leaving the remnant of the Squadron in possession. Lieutenant Flowerdew was dangerously wounded but continued to cheer on his men.

Foley, M. H. A member of Sir E. P. Taché’s government in 1864; postmaster-general in the still-born Brown-Dorion government of 1858; leader of the Opposition, 1863; member of the Macdonald-Sicotte government same year; retired with Buchanan and Simpson to make room for George Brown, Mowat and Macdougall in the coalition ministry the same year. Bib.: Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Fond du Lac. At the western end of Lake Superior. Du Lhut was there in 1679 to meet the Sioux. Radisson had also met the Indians at the same place in 1660. The fur trade does not seem to have centered here to much extent during the French period, but in the early days of British rule the North West Company had a post at Fond du Lac, and a recognized portage route to the interior led by way of the St. Louis river to Rainy river and the Lake of the Woods, and another to the upper waters of the Mississippi. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xix.

Fonte, Bartholomew de. His fictitious voyage of 1640 to the North-West Coast was described in a letter published in the Monthly Miscellany, London, 1708. Bib.: Bancroft, History of the North-West Coast.

Forget, Amédée Emmanuel. Born in Ste. Marie de Monnoir, Quebec, in 1847. Studied law and called to the bar of Quebec, 1871. Secretary to the Manitoba Half-Breed Commission, 1875; clerk of the North-West Council, 1876-1888; Indian commissioner, 1895-1898; lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories, 1898-1905; first lieutenant-governor of Saskatchewan, 1905-1910. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Forget, Sir Rodolphe (1861-1919). Represented Charlevoix in House of Commons. Was for many years an important figure in transportation, banking and industrial interests. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Forsyth, Richardson and Co. Fur trading firm of Montreal. Formed in 1790 by John Forsyth and John Richardson, both from Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Engaged in the trade around Lake Superior before 1795. For a time represented the interests of the X Y Company in opposition to the North West Company, but in 1805 joined the latter and became its Montreal agents. Bib.: Davidson, North West Company.

Fort Albany. Hudson’s Bay Company post at mouth of Albany river, west coast of James Bay. Established about 1683. Captured by Troyes in 1686 and renamed Fort Ste. Anne. It was regained by the English in 1689; again taken by the French under Iberville in 1690; and finally restored to the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1693. Fort and river named after Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II. Bib.: Dawson, St. Lawrence Basin; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West.

Fort Albert. See Victoria.

Fort Alexandria. Hudson’s Bay Company’s post on Fraser river, built originally by the North West Company about 1800. Stood at the point where Alexander Mackenzie reached his farthest point down the Fraser in 1793, and named after him. There was another Fort Alexandria of the North West Company—also known as Fort Tremblant and Poplar Fort—on the upper Assiniboine, near the source of Swan river, built in 1780, and abandoned in 1805. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort Anne. Military post on Wood Creek, on the route from the Hudson river to Lake Champlain. Built originally by Colonel Nicholson in 1709. Afterwards destroyed by the French, and rebuilt. Near here a fight took place in 1758 between a British force under Robert Rogers and a party of French and Indians under Marin. The fort was captured by Major Carleton in 1780. Bib.: Parkman, Half Century of Conflict.

Fort Anne. See Annapolis.

Fort Babine. Hudson’s Bay Company post on Babine Lake, in northern British Columbia. Built in 1822, under the direction of John Stuart, who had been with Fraser on his famous journey down the river that bears his name. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort Beauharnois. Built on the shores of Lake Pepin, on the Mississippi, by La Perrière in 1727. Named after the then governor of Canada. Boucherville was in command in 1728, and abandoned the post, 1729, because of the hostility of the Fox tribe. Said to have been reoccupied, 1732-1737. In 1750 Marin built another post on the Wisconsin side of the lake, which was abandoned in 1756. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii, xviii.

Fort Bourbon. Built by one of the sons of La Vérendrye, near the northern end of Lake Winnipegosis, 1748; subsequently moved to the south side of Cedar Lake, at the foot of the Saskatchewan. Thomas Curry, one of the earliest of the British traders from Montreal, made the latter post his headquarters between 1770 and 1772. Probably the original French fort had before this fallen into decay. Prud’homme says the site is still distinguishable. Peter Pond passed the fort or its site in 1776, and Alexander Henry had been there the previous year. This name was also applied by Iberville to Fort Nelson (q.v.). Bib.: Burpee, Journals of La Vérendrye; Prud’homme, La Vérendrye and Les Successeurs de La Vérendrye (R. S. C., 1917 and 1918).

Fort Camosun. See Victoria.

Fort Carillon. See Ticonderoga.

Fort Charnisay. Built by d’Aulnay de Charnisay, governor of Acadia, in 1645, at the mouth of the St. John river, Bay of Fundy. Occupied later by Charles de la Tour. Rebuilt by Governor Villebon in 1698. Restored by Boishébert, 1751. Again rebuilt by General Monckton, 1758. Dismantled, 1768. A boulder and tablet in St. John marks the site. Bib.: Hannay, History of Acadia.

Fort Chartres. Built by Boisbrant in 1720 in the Illinois country, a mile east of the Mississippi. It was replaced, 1753-1756, by an immense stone fort which cost about $1,000,000. Surrendered to the English in 1765. Undermined by the Mississippi in 1774 and abandoned. Bib.: Mason, Chapters from Illinois History.

Fort Chilcotin. An outpost of Fort Alexandria (q.v.), in British Columbia, built under the direction of John Stuart, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, about 1822. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort Chipewyan. Built by Roderick McKenzie, for the North West Company, in 1788, on the south side of Lake Athabaska, near the mouth of the Athabaska river. It was for some time the headquarters of Alexander Mackenzie, and from here he started out on his exploring expeditions of 1789 and 1793 to the Arctic and the Pacific. It contained a well-selected library, which was famous in its day among the fur traders. Turnor, the astronomer of the Hudson’s Bay Company, wintered there, 1791-1792, taking observations. About 1820 the fort was moved to the north side of the lake, where it is still in operation. The X Y Company had a post on the lake built in 1800. Sir George Simpson visited Chipewyan in 1828 on his way across the continent. William McGillivray was then in charge. Bib.: Mackenzie, History of the Fur Trade in his Voyages; Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Fort Chippawa. A military post on the Niagara river, a mile and a half above the Falls. It was the end of the carrying-place, and a transport post for goods on their way to the west. In the days of Brock it consisted of a blockhouse and quarters for one officer and thirty-six men, enclosed with palisades which were much decayed and useless for defence. Colonel Bisshopp stationed here in 1812. It was the scene of a battle in that year. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Fort Churchill. See Prince of Wales Fort.

Fort Colville. Hudson’s Bay Company post on the Upper Columbia. Built, 1825-1826 by Dr. John McLoughlin. It was the distributing point for the fur trade on the Upper Columbia and the Kootenay, and the last post touched at by the east-bound brigades on the Columbia. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Fort Conolly. Hudson’s Bay Company post on Bear Lake in northern British Columbia, near the source of the Skeena river. Built by (Sir) James Douglas in 1826, and named after William Conolly of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort Crèvecœur. Established by La Salle, on the Illinois river, in 1680. Tonty was left in charge, with two Récollet missionaries, Membré and De la Ribourde. The Iroquois attacked the fort a few months later, and Tonty and his companions were forced to flee, Father de la Ribourde being killed and Tonty wounded in the skirmish. Bib.: Parkman, La Salle; Sulte, Les Tonty (R. S. C., 1893).

Fort Cumberland. See Beauséjour.

Fort Dauphin. Built by one of the sons of La Vérendrye in 1741 near the mouth of Mossy river, which flows into Lake Winnipegosis, or Lake of the Prairies as it was formerly called. Bougainville in his Memoir on the Western Posts, calls the river Minanghenachequeké or Troubled Water. Bib.: Burpee, Journals of La Vérendrye.

Fort Dease. On Dease Lake, in the extreme northern part of British Columbia. Built by Robert Campbell, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1838. Destroyed by the Indians. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Fort Douglas. On Red River, about two miles below the mouth of the Assiniboine. Built by John McLeod, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1815. The following year it was captured by Cuthbert Grant of the North West Company. Retaken by the De Meuron expedition for Lord Selkirk in 1817. For some years thereafter it was occupied as the residence of the governor of Rupert’s Land. Subsequently sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company, it was used for commercial purposes until 1854, and then allowed to fall to pieces. Bib.: Bryce, Five Forts of Winnipeg (R. S. C., 1885).

Fort Duquesne. Military post at junction of Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, built while Galissonière was governor of New France. Near here Braddock suffered his disastrous defeat in 1755. Captured by the English three years later, under Henry Bouquet, who changed the name to Fort Pitt. A description of the fort and its surroundings will be found in Parkman’s Montcalm and Wolfe, vol. 1. The city of Pittsburgh now covers the site. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Casgrain, Wolfe-Montcalm.

Fort Edward. Military post, on the Hudson at the place where the route turned off to Lake Champlain. Dated back to 1709, when Colonel Nicholson built a stockade fort at this spot known as the Great Carrying Place, and named it after himself. Later another fort was built here and called Fort Lydius, and still later Fort Edward was built at the same place. The fall of Oswego in 1756 led Webb to abandon and burn Fort Edward. Marin made a raid upon it the next year. Taken by Burgoyne in 1777. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812.

Fort Erie. Military post on Niagara river opposite Buffalo. Built by Captain John Montressor in 1764. In 1782 consisted of blockhouses surrounded by a stockade. Garrisoned with part of the 49th Regiment in 1812. Two British vessels anchored there were cut out by Lieutenant Jesse Elliott of the United States navy, in October, 1812. Abandoned in 1813 after the capture of Fort George by the Americans. Reoccupied, 1814, with a garrison of 150 men. Captured by the Americans in July, 1814, and enlarged and strengthened. Unsuccessfully besieged by Drummond in August. Abandoned and blown up by the Americans under General Izard in November. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Fort Essington. On the British Columbia coast. Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1835 as an intermediate post between Fort McLoughlin and Fort Simpson. Named after Captain William Essington, R. N. Port Essington, near mouth of the Skeena, named by Vancouver in 1793. Present small town dates from 1871. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Fort Fraser. Post built by Simon Fraser, for the North West Company, in 1806, at east end of Fraser Lake, in northern British Columbia. Burned in October, 1817. Rebuilt, and still maintained by Hudson’s Bay Company. It is on the telegraph line to the Yukon. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort Frédéric. See Crown Point.

Fort Frontenac. See Cataraqui.

Fort Garry. At junction of Red and Assiniboine rivers, where the city of Winnipeg now stands. Named after Nicholas Garry, a director of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Built in 1821 after the union of the Hudson’s Bay and North West Companies. It contained several buildings surrounded by a wall with bastions. Pulled down in 1852. In 1835 Governor Christie began work on a much larger fort, also known as Garry. It contained warehouses, the governor’s residence, a court-house, a jail, and other buildings, surrounded by a substantial stone wall. Seized and occupied by Louis Riel in 1869. The Council of Assiniboia met here from 1835 to 1869. Sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1882, and mostly torn down. All that remains to-day is the gate, on Main Street, opposite the Canadian National Railway station. In 1831 the Hudson’s Bay Company built a stone fort on Red River just below St. Andrew’s Rapids, and nineteen miles from Fort Garry. This was known as Lower Fort Garry, and still stands in an excellent state of preservation. Bib.: Bryce, Five Forts of Winnipeg (R. S. C., 1885).

Fort Gaspereaux. Near Fort Elgin, New Brunswick. Built by the French, 1750, at Bay Verte to command the defence of the Isthmus of Chignecto. Captured by the English in 1755 and renamed Fort Monckton. Marked to-day by a cairn and tablet. Bib.: Hannay, History of Acadia.

Fort George. A military post on the west side of Niagara river about a mile above its entrance into Lake Ontario. Built by Simcoe about 1793. In 1796, when Fort Niagara was given up to the United States, the flag, garrison, guns and stores were removed to Fort George. In 1803 it is described as a low square fort with earthen ramparts, cedar palisades, and loopholed log barracks. Brock made his headquarters here at the opening of the War of 1812. Captured by the Americans under Dearborn in 1813. Retaken by Colonel Murray same year. Fort William Henry, on Lake George, was also known as Fort George. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Fort George. Built by Simon Fraser, on Fraser river, for North West Company, in 1807. It stood at the mouth of the Nechaco, and was named after King George. From here Fraser started out on his exploring expedition down the Fraser. In 1823 two Hudson’s Bay Company men were massacred here by Indians. The town of Prince George, on the Canadian National Railway, stands on or near the site of the fort. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Fort George. See Astoria.

Fort Gibraltar. Built by the North West Company, on the banks of Red River, near the mouth of the Assiniboine, in 1804-1805. John Wills, who built the fort, remained in charge until his death in 1814. Within the oak stockade were the residences of the Bourgeois and his men, a storehouse, blacksmith’s shop, stable, kitchen and icehouse. Duncan Cameron, of the North West Company, who succeeded to the command of the fort in 1814, was instrumental in persuading a large number of the Selkirk colonists to leave Red River and go down to Canada. The following year the fort was captured by Selkirk’s men, but restored. In 1816 it was again seized by Governor Semple, and destroyed. Bib.: Bryce, Five Forts of Winnipeg (R. S. C., 1885).

Fort Halkett. Hudson’s Bay Company post, built on Liard river, 1822. Abandoned about 1875. It was on the fur traders’ route from the Mackenzie river to the Pacific by way of the Stikine. Robert Campbell travelled this way in 1834. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Fort Kamloops. Also known as Fort Thompson. Built by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1813 at the junction of the North and South branches of the Thompson river, in British Columbia. It was the principal post on the trading route between the Columbia and the Fraser. Present town of Kamloops covers site of the fort. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Fort Kootenay. Also called Kootenay House. Built by David Thompson in 1807, for the North West Company, on the Kootenay river near what is known to-day as Lake Windermere. This was the first trading post on the Upper Columbia or its branches, and was the headquarters for Thompson’s explorations west of the mountains. A memorial to Thompson, in the shape of a reproduction of a typical trading fort of the days of the fur trade, was built near the site of Fort Kootenay in 1922. Bib.: Thompson, Narrative.

Fort La Baye. Built in 1717 at the western end of Green Bay, Lake Michigan, to control the Fox-Wisconsin portage route to the Mississippi. Subsequently called Fort St. François; also sometimes Fort St. Philippe. Abandoned and burnt by Lignery in 1728. Rebuilt by Villiers in 1731. The first commandant was Philippe d’Amours Sieur de la Morandière, who was succeeded four years later by Jacques Testard Sieur de Montigny. Charlevoix visited the post in 1721. The fort was abandoned in 1760, and taken over by the British the same year. A hundred years after the building of the original post, the Americans built Fort Howard probably on the same site. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Fort La Corne. On the Saskatchewan, a few miles east of the forks. Built by the French about 1754. Franchère mentions the site in his Narrative (1814).

Fort La Jonquière. Built in 1751, under the direction of De Niverville, lieutenant of Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, on the Saskatchewan, probably the South Branch, “three hundred leagues” above Fort Paskoyac. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Fort Langley. Post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, on the Fraser river near its mouth, built by Dr. John McLoughlin in 1827. First post on the lower mainland of British Columbia. The small town of Langley stands on or near the site of the fort. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Fort La Reine. Built by La Vérendrye, in 1736, on the Assiniboine, at the place where the town of Portage la Prairie stands to-day. It was the starting-point for the various explorations of La Vérendrye and his sons to the Mandan Indians on the Missouri and the south-west. It was also the headquarters of Legardeur de Saint-Pierre while he was in the west, 1751-1753. Jonathan Carver in his narrative says that the fur traders whom he met at Grand Portage in 1767 had already penetrated to Fort La Reine where they traded with the Assiniboin. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Journals of La Vérendrye.

Fort La Tour. Also known as Fort St. Jean, at the mouth of the St. John river, Bay of Fundy. Built in 1631 by Charles de la Tour, governor of Acadia. In 1645 Charnisay attacked the fort. Madame de la Tour, who commanded the little garrison in the absence of her husband, made a gallant defence. The fort was captured. Madame de la Tour was made a prisoner, and died a few weeks afterwards. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime in Canada.

Fort Lawrence. Built in 1750 on Chignecto Bay, at the head of the Bay of Fundy. Shortly afterwards the French built a rival post, Fort Beauséjour (q.v.), three miles south. Lawrence became headquarters of the expedition sent under Monckton in 1755 to capture Beauséjour. A cairn and tablet mark the site to-day. Bib.: Hannay, History of Acadia.

Fort Le Bœuf. Built by Marin in 1753 in the Ohio country, where the town of Waterford, Pennsylvania, now stands. Marin died there the same year. He was succeeded by Legardeur de Saint Pierre, who had followed La Vérendrye in the search for the Western Sea. George Washington met him at Fort Le Bœuf in 1753 when he brought a message from the governor of Virginia to the French summoning them to retire from the Ohio country. The French abandoned the fort in 1759; and it was occupied by a detachment of the Royal Americans sent from Fort Pitt. Pontiac attacked and burned the fort. Reoccupied by the Americans, 1794, and maintained until 1815. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Fort Lennox. Ile-aux-Noix, on the Richelieu river, near St. Johns. Built by Haldimand in 1778, as part of a system of defence against a possible repetition of the American invasion of 1775-1776. In that invasion Montgomery had used Ile-aux-Noix as a base for his attack on St. Johns. In 1813 it was garrisoned by British regulars. An American flotilla attacked the fort in June. It was defeated, the ships captured, and the men taken prisoners. The fort, which has been restored, is preserved and maintained by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. Bib.: Fort Lennox (National Sites and Monuments Board).

Fort Liard. Hudson’s Bay Company post, built on the Liard river, at the mouth of the Black river, about 1800. Twenty years later the fort was pillaged by Indians and its people murdered. The post is apparently still in operation. Bib.: Campbell, Discovery of the Youcon.

Fort Livingstone. In northern Manitoba, near Swan River. It was one of the early posts of the Mounted Police, and was for a time the seat of government of the North-West Territories. The National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada has marked the site by a cairn and tablet. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West.

Fort Machault. Built by Contrecœur in 1754. On the evacuation of Fort Duquesne, its garrison was moved to Machault, and preparations made during the winter of 1758-1759 for an attack on Fort Pitt, which was prevented by the advance of Prideaux and Johnson against Niagara. Machault was captured by the English, who built a new stockade which was called Fort Venango. This was captured by the Indians in 1763, the commandant murdered, and the post burned. The Americans built Fort Franklin on the site, 1788, which was maintained to 1796. The town of Franklin grew up about the post. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Fort McLeod. On McLeod Lake, northern British Columbia. First permanent trading post built by the North West Company west of the Rockies. Erected by Simon Fraser in 1805. Still in operation, by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort McLoughlin. On Millbank Sound, British Columbia. Built by Finlayson, Manson and Anderson, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1833. Named after Dr. John McLoughlin (q.v.). The fort was subsequently moved to the north end of Vancouver Island, and renamed Fort Rupert. Abandoned in 1843. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Fort McPherson. Built by the Hudson’s Bay Company, on Peel river, a few miles above its junction with the Mackenzie. The winter portage leads from the Lower Ramparts of the Mackenzie west to McPherson, and over the mountains to Bell river and the Porcupine. Bib.: Cameron, The New North.

Fort Maurepas. Built by La Jemeraye, for La Vérendrye, in 1734, on Red river, a few miles below where the town of Selkirk stands. Subsequently moved to the foot of Winnipeg river. Legardeur de Saint Pierre wintered there, 1750-1751. One of the British traders who went west in 1793 says that a French fort once stood on a high knoll near the last rapid of the Winnipeg river north side. Not a vestige remained then except the clearing. Fort Alexander of the North West Company afterwards stood near the site. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Fort Miami. On Maumee river, a few miles above Lake Erie, where city of Fort Wayne, Indiana, stands to-day. Built by the French in 1715; surrendered to the British in 1760; rebuilt by Simcoe in 1794. Garrisoned with 124 rank and file of the 24th Regiment under Major Campbell. General Wayne demanded its evacuation, but was refused. Handed over to United States in 1796 and name changed to Fort Wayne. Brock sent an expedition against it in 1812. Bib.: Scott, John Graves Simcoe; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Fort Monckton. See Fort Gaspereaux.

Fort Nanaimo. Hudson’s Bay Company post, built in 1852 on the east coast of Vancouver Island. The discovery of coal there led to the establishment of the post. Built by Joseph W. McKay under instructions from Governor Douglas. City of Nanaimo covers site of the post. Name is of Indian origin, applied to a loose confederacy of bands, She-ny-mo, meaning “a big strong tribe.” Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Fort Nelson. See York Factory.

Fort Niagara. At mouth of Niagara river, on what is now the United States side. Its history goes back to 1678, when La Salle built storehouses there and surrounded them with a palisade. Burnt in 1680. Chaussegros de Léry in 1726, under the instructions of Denonville, rebuilt the fort of stone, large enough to take a garrison of five hundred men. The materials were brought in part from Fort Frontenac in vessels built for the purpose. The fort was abandoned in 1687. Charlevoix mentions a blockhouse there in 1721, and that it was strengthened by adding four bastions in 1726. Rebuilt, 1749, as part of the ambitious French project of a chain of forts from Canada to Louisiana. Besieged and captured by Sir William Johnson in 1759. Five years later Johnson signed a treaty of peace here with the Indians. By the terms of the Treaty of Versailles the fort fell within the American lines, but was not surrendered until 1796 because certain other terms of the treaty had not been carried out by the United States. Captured by Colonel Murray in 1813. Restored by the treaty of Ghent. Bib.: Edgar, General Brock; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Parkman, Frontenac and Montcalm and Wolfe.

Fort Nipigon. The earliest post on Lake Nipigon was that built for Du Lhut in 1684. It was in charge of his brother La Tourette as late as 1688, and was sometimes known by his name. Early in the eighteenth century another post was built at the mouth of the Nipigon river. Alexander Henry mentions its ruins in 1775. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Fort Nisqually. At head of Puget Sound. Built by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1833, to serve the territory between Fort Vancouver on the Columbia and Fort Langley on the Fraser. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Fort Oswego. Originally built by Governor Burnet of New York in 1727, at his own expense—a loopholed house of stone on the site of the present city of Oswego, south shore of Lake Ontario. It was designed to attract the Indian trade from Fort Niagara, and was eminently successful. Destroyed by Montcalm in 1756. Rebuilt by Haldimand in 1759, and renamed Fort Ontario. Captured by Drummond and Yeo in the War of 1812. Bib.: Parkman, Half Century of Conflict and Montcalm and Wolfe; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Fort Pasquia or Poskoyac. Built about the year 1742 by the sons of La Vérendrye, on the Saskatchewan at the place where the town of The Pas stands to-day. De Niverville was there in 1751. When Alexander Henry, the Elder, ascended the Saskatchewan in 1808, he found the remains of an old French fort at this place, and the trails leading to it were still visible. Also mentioned by Alexander Mackenzie. Remains of old French posts are also recorded, at the forks of the Saskatchewan, and on Carrot river, an affluent of the Saskatchewan. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Journals of La Vérendrye.

Fort Pemaquid. One of the frontier defences of New England. Originally a stockaded post built by Governor Andros, it was destroyed by the Abnaki in 1689, and rebuilt by Sir William Phipps in stone in 1692, and renamed Fort William Henry. Iberville appeared before the fort the same year with two war vessels, but sailed away without attacking it. In 1696 Iberville returned with a strong force and captured and demolished the fort. A point of land and a village of Maine bear the name to-day. Bib.: LeSueur, Count Frontenac; Hannay, History of Acadia.

Fort Pitt. See Fort Duquesne. A Hudson’s Bay Company post of this name stood on the banks of the Saskatchewan near present town of Lloydminster. It was besieged and captured by Poundmaker in the Rebellion of 1885. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West.

Fort Presqu’isle. Built by Marin in the summer of 1753. The city of Erie, Pennsylvania, now covers the site. Six years later a large force gathered here for the recapture of Fort Pitt, but was diverted to the relief of Niagara, where it was defeated. Presqu’isle was abandoned. Colonel Henry Bouquet from Fort Pitt took possession in 1760. Captured in 1763 by hostile Indians. The Americans under Anthony Wayne built a blockhouse on the site in 1793. Wayne died there three years later. Garrison maintained until the War of 1812-1814, and thereafter a naval station up to 1825. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Fort Providence. There have been several trading posts of this name. One, afterwards known as Old Fort Providence, built 1790, stood on the north side of Great Slave lake, near the mouth of Yellowknife river. Probably built by Leroux under instructions from Alexander Mackenzie. About 1860 the Hudson’s Bay Company built another post, Fort Rae, farther up the north arm of the lake. Another Fort Providence stands on the banks of the Mackenzie river, not far from its outlet from Great Slave lake. Still another was on the North Saskatchewan, near where Prince Albert was afterwards built. It was in ruins in 1808. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Fort Rouge. Built by de Louvière for La Vérendrye at the mouth of the Assiniboine in 1738. It was only a temporary post, and was abandoned soon after. The portion of the city of Winnipeg where it stood is known to-day as Fort Rouge. Bib.: Burpee, Journals of La Vérendrye.

Fort Rouillé. Built by the French in 1749, in what is now the city of Toronto. Named after the French minister for the colonies. Designed to control the long portage route from Lake Ontario to Georgian Bay. Maintained for about two years. In 1757 Pouchot, the commandant at Niagara, sent La Ferté and fifty men to Rouillé to suppress a disturbance among the Indians at the fort. The remains of the fort were visible as late as 1879. The site is marked by a cairn. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Fort Rupert. Also known as Fort Charles. Built by Captain Zachariah Gillam in 1668 at the mouth of Rupert River, James Bay. Gillam had been sent out with Radisson and Chouart to Hudson Bay to lay the foundations of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The fort was rebuilt or strengthened in 1677. Captured by the French under De Troyes in 1686, and renamed Fort St. Jacques. Retaken by the English in 1693. Still maintained by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Fort Rupert. See Fort McLoughlin.

Fort St. Charles. Built by La Vérendrye, on the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, in 1732. Rebuilt and strengthened by La Vérendrye in 1736. It was one of his principal posts in connection with the search for the Western Sea. The site of the fort was discovered by an exploring party from St. Boniface College in 1902, with the skulls of Father Aulneau and the eldest son of La Vérendrye, murdered by the Sioux on the Lake of the Woods in 1736. Father Aulneau, in one of his letters, describes the fort as a stockade surrounding several rough log cabins roofed with bark. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Journals of La Vérendrye.

Fort St. Frédéric. See Crown Point.

Fort St. James. Post of the North West Company, on Stuart Lake, in northern British Columbia, built by Simon Fraser in 1806. Sir George Simpson visited the fort in 1828. Bib.: Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia.

Fort St. Jean. On the Richelieu river, within the boundaries of the present city of St. Johns. Built in 1748, and the rendezvous for military expeditions against the English on Lake Champlain and Lake George. Demolished by the French in 1760 to prevent its capture by the English. Rebuilt, 1775, and the same year captured by Montgomery after a long siege. Evacuated when the American army retreated from Canada. Bib.: Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812.

Fort St. Joseph. Built about 1715 on the St. Joseph river. Coulon de Villiers was in command in 1730. Another post of the same name was built by Du Lhut, on the St. Clair river, about 1685. La Hontan succeeded him in the command, 1687, and abandoned and burnt the fort the following spring. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Fort St. Louis. Built by La Salle in 1680 on the Illinois river, near the present town of La Salle. The governor, La Barre, who was unfriendly to La Salle, sent Baugy and Du Lhut in 1683 to seize the fort and confiscate the merchandise. La Salle appealed to the king, and La Barre was ordered to restore the fort and make full reparation to La Salle. Bib.: Le Sueur, Count Frontenac.

Fort St. Louis. See Chateau St. Louis.

Fort Ste. Marie. Ste. Marie I stood on the banks of the Wye, near Midland, Ontario. Built by the Jesuits in 1639 as a fortified mission, it was occupied for ten years. Consisted of a stone fort and other works. Iroquois raids forced the missionaries to burn and abandon the fort. Ste. Marie II stood on Christian Island, near Penetanguishene. The fort was built in 1649 and abandoned the following year. The preservation of these sites is in the hands of the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada, which has carried out certain restoration work. Bib.: Jesuit Relations, 1649, 1650.

Fort St. Pierre. In Cape Breton. Founded by Nicholas Denys, after he had been obliged to abandon Chedabucto. Taken from him in 1654 by Emmanuel le Borgne de Belle Isle. Bib.: Dionne, Champlain; Denys, History of Acadia.

Fort St. Pierre. At the point where Rainy Lake discharges into Rainy river, north side. Built by La Jemeraye, under instructions from La Vérendrye, in 1731. The first of the series of posts built in connection with La Vérendrye’s search for a route to the Western Sea or the Pacific. The site of the fort is in what is known as Pither’s Point Park, in the town of Fort Frances. In clearing the brush, about the year 1860, R. J. N. Pither, of Fort Frances, found in the ground fragments of some of the stockades of Fort St. Pierre. A post of the North West Company and later of the Hudson’s Bay Company, stood on or near the site for many years. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Journals of La Vérendrye.

Fort Selkirk. Built by Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, at the point where the Pelly and Lewes rivers join to form the Yukon, in 1848. It was known at one time as Campbell’s Fort. Plundered and burnt by Indians in 1852. Named after Lord Selkirk, founder of the Selkirk Settlement. Bib.: Campbell, Discovery of the Youcon.

Fort Severn. At mouth of Severn river, Hudson Bay. Built for the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1685. Rebuilt and called New Fort Severn, 1760. Captured by the French, 1690. Restored to Hudson’s Bay Company, 1693. Still in operation. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Fort Simpson. At junction of Liard and Mackenzie rivers. Built about 1820, by the Hudson’s Bay Company. Known at first as Fort of the Forks. Present name after Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition.

Fort Simpson. On coast of British Columbia, near Alaskan boundary. First built by Hudson’s Bay Company about twenty miles up the Nass river in 1831, and known as Fort Nass. Name subsequently changed to Fort Simpson, in honour of Captain Æmilius Simpson, an officer in the Company’s service on the Pacific coast. The fort was moved down to McLoughlin’s Bay, now Port Simpson, in 1834. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Fort Stanwix. Stood on the Mohawk river, guarding the end of the portage from Wood creek and Lake Oneida. An old blockhouse, Fort Williams, stood near the spot before 1756, when it was destroyed by Daniel Webb at the time of the capture of Oswego by Montcalm. The new fort was built by General Stanwix in 1758. Unsuccessfully besieged by St. Leger (q.v.) in 1777. The town of Rome now covers the site. Bib.: Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812; Fiske, New France and New England.

Fort Vancouver. On Columbia river. Established by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1824. Built by Dr. John McLoughlin. It was a large fort, 750 feet by 600 feet, a number of buildings surrounded by a stockade; and was for some years the headquarters of the Western department, extending from Russian America to Mexico. Supplies were brought around the Horn to the mouth of the Columbia. Grain was grown about the post; cattle, sheep, and hogs were raised; and flour, grist, and saw-mills established. The agreement on the forty-ninth parallel as the international boundary in 1846 put Fort Vancouver in United States territory, and, although it was not finally abandoned until 1849, its glory had departed. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas; Bancroft, History of the North West Coast.

Fort Vincennes. On Wabash river. Founded about 1727 by the Sieur de Vincennes. One of the chain of forts built by the French from Canada to Louisiana by way of the Mississippi. It was particularly designed to counteract English influence among the Miami. It was in the country of the Illinois Indians, and about it in time grew up a little French settlement. Here they remained undisturbed for some time after the conquest of Quebec and the cession of Canada to Great Britain. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Fort Walla Walla. Post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, on the Columbia river. It was the distributing point for the Snake river country. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Fort Wayne. See Fort Miami.

Fort Wellington. In the town of Prescott, Ontario. Built in 1812-1813 as a centre of defence between Kingston and Montreal. The forces that took Ogdensburg in February, 1813, and the troops engaged in repelling the American invasion at Windmill Point in November, 1838, were assembled here. The blockhouse is now maintained by the National Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Fort William. At mouth of the Kaministikwia river, Lake Superior. Named after William McGillivray of the North West Company. First known as Fort Kaministikwia. The Company moved from Grand Portage, which had been found to be within United States territory, to the mouth of the Kaministikwia, in 1801, and the fort, which was a very large one, with a number of buildings surrounded by a wall, took several years to complete. It was for many years the headquarters of the North West Company, where the annual meetings were held. Supplies were brought this far from Montreal in large canoes, and transferred to smaller canoes for the inland navigation. The fort and the life there have been described by Alexander Henry, Alexander Ross, Washington Irving, and other travellers and fur traders. The town of Fort William now covers the site. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Davidson, North West Company; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Coues, Henry-Thompson Journals.

Fort William Henry. On Lake George. Built by Sir William Johnson in 1755, and named by him after the then king’s grandson. Various raids were made against the fort by French and Indians, with varying success. Robert Rogers and other guerilla leaders made it their headquarters for expeditions against the French. Captured by Montcalm in 1757. The earthen mounds of the fort still stand on the shores of Lake George. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Fort Yale. Founded by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1848. Stood on the Fraser river, some miles above the mouth of the Coquihalla. Town of Yale occupies the site to-day. Bib.: Bancroft, History of British Columbia.

Fort Yukon. Built by Alexander Hunter Murray, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, at the mouth of the Porcupine river, in 1847. John Bell had descended the Porcupine to its mouth in 1844. Although Fort Yukon was on Russian territory, the Company maintained it until the sale of Alaska to the United States, when they were summarily ejected, 1869. The Company thereupon moved up the Porcupine to the Ramparts, where they built Rampart House, then supposed to be on British territory, but proved to be west of the boundary. The fort was moved twelve miles up the river, and in 1890 was again moved to the eastward. Bib.: Murray, Journal (Canadian Archives Pub., 1910).

Forts. See also Astoria, Cataraqui, Chambly, Crown Point, Cumberland House, Detroit, Kaministikwia, Louisbourg, Michilimackinac, Moose Factory, Prince of Wales, Rocky Mountain House, Sorel, Three Rivers, Ticonderoga.

Foster, Sir George Eulas (1847-). Born in Carleton county, New Brunswick. Educated University of New Brunswick, Edinburgh and Heidelberg. Professor of classics University of New Brunswick 1871-1879. Sat for King’s county, New Brunswick, in House of Commons, 1882-1896; for York county, New Brunswick, 1896-1900; for North Toronto, 1904-1921. Called to the Senate, 1921; Minister of finance, 1888-1896; minister of trade and commerce, 1911-1921. Delivered addresses on imperial preferential trade throughout Great Britain in 1903. Chairman of the West Indian Conference at Ottawa, 1912. A member of the Royal Commission on Natural Resources, 1912. Created K. C. M. G., 1914; G. C. M. G., 1918; Imperial Privy Councillor, 1916. Member of the Allied Economic Conference at Paris, 1916; and represented Canada at the Peace Conference, 1918. Chairman of the Canadian delegation to the first assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, 1920, and elected one of the vice-presidents. Bib.: Canadian Addresses. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Chambers, Can. Parl. Guide.

Fothergill, Charles. Editor of the Upper Canada Gazette, and king’s printer. The Gazette had both an official and a non-official side. In the latter Fothergill attacked William Lyon Mackenzie in 1824. Became a member of the Assembly and opposed government measures. Dismissed from his office of king’s printer. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

Fouez. See St. Maurice River.

Fournier, Telesphore (1824-1896). Studied law, and called to the bar, 1846; one of principal editorial writers on Le National; elected to the House of Commons for Bellechasse, 1870; minister of inland revenue, in Mackenzie government, 1873; minister of justice, 1874; postmaster-general, 1875. One of the leaders of the Quebec Liberals. Appointed judge of Supreme Court, 1875; resigned, 1895. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.

Fox Channel. Between Melville peninsula and Baffin island. Named after Captain Luke Foxe (q.v.) who commanded an expedition in search of the North-West Passage in 1631, and explored Fox channel. To some point in this channel he gave the name, now obsolete, of “Foxe his Farthest.” Bib.: White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

Fox Indians. An Algonquian tribe which occupied part of the lower Michigan peninsula during the French régime in Canada. Driven west by the Iroquois, they took refuge in what is now Wisconsin. First visited by Perrot and other French traders in 1668. Their villages then or later were in the neighbourhood of Fox river. Visited by Allouez in 1669. In 1710 Cadillac persuaded them to return to their former home and settle about Detroit. Two years later they were practically wiped out in a fight with the Hurons and Ottawa in which the French took the side of the latter. Those who survived drifted back to Green Bay where they formed a confederacy with other tribes directed more or less against the French. About 1734 they retreated to Iowa. About the middle of the eighteenth century some of them were found on the Allegheny. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Fox River. Flows into foot of Green Bay, Lake Michigan. Discovered by Nicolet in 1634. Visited subsequently by Radisson, Allouez and other explorers and missionaries. Fort La Baye was built at its mouth in 1717, and a considerable French settlement grew up along the banks of the river. A portage led to the Wisconsin and Mississippi. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Foxe, Luke (1586-1635). A native of Yorkshire. Under the authority of Charles I, he sailed from Deptford for the west in May, 1631, in the pinnace Charles. The latter part of June he entered Hudson Strait, sailed through, across the north side of Hudson Bay, and down the west coast to the mouth of the Nelson, where he found an inscription left by Sir Thomas Button in 1613. Continuing his voyage down the west coast, he met Captain James in the Maria the last of August, and after visiting him, sailed on to Cape Henrietta Maria, where Hudson Bay proper turns down into James Bay. Here Foxe turned back and was again in England the end of October. His voyage had convinced him that the North-West Passage was not to be found on the west coast of Hudson Bay. Bib.: Rundall, Narratives of Voyages towards the North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Franchère, Gabriel (1786-1856). Born at Montreal. Joined the Pacific Fur Company, organized by John Jacob Astor, and sailed from New York for the mouth of the Columbia, 1810. Returned overland by way of the Columbia River and Athabaska Pass, reaching Montreal in September, 1814. His narrative throws an interesting light upon the Astor expedition and the events at Astoria which led up to the transfer of the fort to the North West Company. Continuing in the fur trade, established at Sault Ste. Marie in 1834; and later in New York. Bib.: Relation d’un Voyage à la Côte du Nord-Ouest de l’Amérique Septentrionale. Trans. by J. V. Huntington. For biog., see Morice, Dict. Hist.; Bibaud, Pan. Can.

Franchise. Under the Constitutional Act, 1791, the right to vote in rural districts was based on a forty shilling freehold or its equivalent in any other tenure, while in towns it was granted to those who possessed a residence valued at five pounds or rented at ten pounds and had resided at least one year in the province. By the British North America Act, 1867, the power to determine the Dominion franchise was left to the federal parliament, but for some years the provincial franchises were used in Dominion elections. In 1885 Sir John Macdonald carried a federal franchise Act based on property. Manhood suffrage was in force at this time in all the provinces except Quebec and Nova Scotia. When Sir Wilfrid Laurier came into power in 1896 the Act of 1885 was repealed, and the provincial lists again brought into use for Dominion elections. Bib.: Kennedy, Constitution of Canada; Pope, Memoirs of Macdonald; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790). American statesman and philosopher. In 1776 he headed a commission sent by Congress to Montreal to look into the military and political situation in Canada. He reported that it was idle to attempt the capture of Canada at that time, and that all that could be done was to protect the Lake Champlain route against incursions from the north. Bib.: Autobiography; Complete Works ed. by Bigelow. For biog., see Lives by Parton, Hale, Morse and Bigelow.

Franklin, Sir John (1786-1847). Served at Trafalgar, in the Bellerophon. Headed overland expedition of 1819-1822, from York Factory by way of Great Slave Lake, to the mouth of the Coppermine, and the Arctic coast; and second expedition, 1825-1827, in which he continued his explorations of the northern coast of the continent. Started on third expedition, by sea, to make North-West Passage. The ships had to be abandoned, and Franklin and all his men perished in the attempt to reach one of the remote northern posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Works: Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, 1823; Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea. For biog., see Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition; Rae, Narrative; McClintock, Narrative of the Fate of Sir John Franklin; Osborn, Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John Franklin; Traill, Life of Sir John Franklin.

Franklin, Michael. Born in England. Came to Halifax, 1752. Elected to the Assembly, 1759; appointed to the Council, 1762; lieutenant-governor, 1766. Organized the militia of the province, 1776-1777; largely instrumental in securing the peace of Nova Scotia during the Revolutionary War. Appointed commissioner of Indian affairs. Died, 1782. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Franquelin, Jean Baptiste Louis. Born between 1651 and 1653, at Saint Michel de Villebernin. Hydrographer to the king of France. Came to Canada about 1672. Came out again in 1687 and the following year published his great map of New France. He had issued a less elaborate and authoritative map in 1681, and another in 1684. Obtained information for his 1688 map from Du Lhut, Tonty and Perrot. Returned to France, 1695. Died between 1712 and 1730. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin; Roy, Un hydrographie du Roi à Québec (R. S. C., 1919).

Fraser, Duncan Cameron (1845-1910). Born in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia. Educated at Dalhousie University, studied law and called to the bar of Nova Scotia, 1873. Appointed to the Legislative Council, 1878, but resigned same year to run for the Assembly. Again called to the Legislative and Executive Councils, 1888. Sat in the House of Commons for Guysborough, 1891-1904; appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1904; lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1906-1910. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Fraser, John James. Opposed the entry of New Brunswick into Confederation. Defeated in York county on that issue, 1866. Lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1893-1896. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Fraser, Malcolm. Served in the army at Louisbourg and Quebec, 1758-1760, and left an interesting journal of the siege of Quebec and the battle of Ste. Foye. In 1761 was granted a seigniory at Malbaie, and subsequently one at Rivière du Loup. Brought out recruits to Canada in 1775 for the Royal Emigrants. Took part in the defence of Quebec against Montgomery and Arnold. In command at Three Rivers during the pursuit of the Americans and defeated Thompson in a skirmish near there. He was still on active service in 1812. Bib.: Wrong, A Canadian Manor and its Seigneurs.

Fraser, Simon (1776?-1862). Born at Bennington, Vermont. With his widowed mother, came to Canada as a child and settled at Three Rivers, and later at St. Andrew’s, near Cornwall. He joined the North West Company in 1792, and ten years later became a bourgeois or partner. He was agent for the Company at Grand Portage in 1797, and at Fort Liard, 1804. The following year he was put in charge of the new field of New Caledonia, west of the mountains. Crossing the Rockies by Peace River, he ascended the Parsnip to a lake which he named after Archibald Norman McLeod. Here he established a small post. In the spring of 1806, with John Stuart, he crossed over to the headwaters of the Fraser river, as it was afterwards known, descended it to the Nechaco, and ascended the latter to a lake which he named Stuart, and near the outlet of which he built Fort St. James. The same year he built Fort Fraser on Fraser Lake. In the spring of 1807 he descended to the mouth of the Nechaco, where he built Fort George. In May, 1808, with Stuart, Jules Maurice Quesnel, and nineteen voyageurs, he set forth on his tremendous journey down the Fraser, one which because of its extraordinary dangers and difficulties and the indomitable pluck with which it was pushed through to a successful issue has few parallels in the history of exploration. He followed the river practically to its mouth, and only then discovered that it was not the Columbia as he had supposed. On his journey down the Fraser he crossed the mouth of a large tributary, which he named the Thompson, after David Thompson (q.v.). In 1811 he was promoted to the charge of the Red River department, and was offered knighthood as a recognition of his services in the cause of exploration, but declined the honour. He was present at the Seven Oaks affair, when Governor Semple of the Hudson’s Bay Company lost his life, and was also at Fort William when Lord Selkirk captured that post. Retired from the fur trade about the time of the coalition of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Company. Died at St. Andrew’s, Cornwall, Ontario. The Hudson’s Bay Company in 1921 placed a memorial stone over his grave. Bib.: Bancroft, History of the North West Coast; Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest; Morice, Northern Interior of British Columbia; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Davidson, North West Company. Fraser’s journals, in somewhat different form, are found in Masson and in Bancroft.

Fraser River. Rises in Rocky Mountains, one branch near Mount Robson and the other near Mount Brown, and flows into Strait of Georgia. Its upper waters discovered by Alexander Mackenzie, 1793; and first explored down to its mouth by Simon Fraser, 1808. Eliza, the Spanish explorer, named the river Rio Blanca in 1791, having learned of its existence from the Indians. Vancouver passed its mouth in 1792 without discovering the river. James McMillan, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, explored the mouth in 1824. The total length of the river is 695 miles. It has many tributaries, the principal being the Nechaco, Stuart, Thompson, Chilcotin, and Blackwater. Bib.: Fraser Journal in Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest; Atlas of Canada; Davidson, North West Company.

Fréchette, Louis (1839-1908). Born at Lévis. Practised law and then journalism. Edited L’Amérique in Chicago. Fought a duel in New Orleans with a Prussian at the time of the Franco-Prussian war. Returned to Quebec. Represented Lévis in the House of Commons, 1874-1878. Afterwards clerk to the Legislative Council. Chiefly known as a poet. Two of his poems were crowned by the French Academy, 1880, and he was granted the first Montyon prize. Bib.: Works: Mes Loisirs; La Voix d’un Exilé; Pêle Mêle; Les Fleurs Boreales; Légende d’un Peuple; Les Feuilles Volantes; Lettres Basile; Originaux et Détraqués; Lettres sur l’Education. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Taché, Men of the Day; Chapman, Le Lauréat; Sauville, Le Lauréat Manqué.

Fredericton. Capital of New Brunswick. Situated on the west bank of the St. John River. Founded by Sir Guy Carleton in 1785, and named by him after the Duke of York. Incorporated as a city, 1848. An Acadian settlement named Ste. Anne’s, dating from 1731, stood on the same spot. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Free Trade. As a political policy has been advocated at various times by political leaders and parties in Canada, but has never been put in actual operation. It was proposed by George Brown in the fullest sense in 1850. He would “dispense with the whole customs department.” It was recommended by the Reform Convention of 1857. Sir Wilfrid Laurier at one time was in favour of “free trade as they have it in England,” but modified his views to “a tariff for revenue only.” Sir John Macdonald’s view was that free trade as an abstract proposition was indisputably sound, but that its successful application depended upon conditions that did not exist in Canada. The adoption of free trade in England in 1846 was charged with the death of Canadian industries. Elgin’s view, however, was that it was “the inconsistency of imperial legislation, and not the adoption of one policy rather than another, which (was) the bane of the colonies.” Bib.: Skelton, Laurier; Pope, Macdonald; Bourinot, Lord Elgin.

Frémin, James (1628-1691). Born at Rheims; entered the Society of Jesus, 1646; and sailed for Canada, 1655. The following year he went with Dablon to Onondaga, and remained there until 1658. For some years he was stationed among the Micmacs in Cape Breton, and at La Prairie on the St. Lawrence. In 1666 he was selected with Bruyas and Pierron to reëstablish the abandoned Iroquois missions. He remained with the Mohawks until 1668, when he started for the Seneca country. The following year he set out for the home of the Cayugas, shortly before La Salle arrived at the Seneca town looking for a guide. As La Salle and the Jesuits were not on friendly terms, it has been suggested that Frémin’s absence was not unpremeditated. The same year Frémin presided at a meeting of all the missionaries at Onondaga. Soon afterwards he took charge, at the request of the governor, De Courcelles, of the new mission settlement of Iroquois at Caughnawaga, on the St. Lawrence. Here he was visited at different times by Laval, the Intendant Duchesneau, Perrot the governor of Montreal, and other notabilities of New France. Frémin died at Quebec. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

French Canadians. Their ancestors came for the most part from the west of France, Normandy and Picardy. Emigration from the old land had practically ceased some time before Canada became British. Unlike the rest of Canada, and indeed the rest of North America north of Mexico, Quebec has owed little to immigration. Her population is almost entirely the result of natural increase. The extraordinary character of that increase may be judged from the fact that while there were 65,000 French in Canada at the conquest, the 1921 census reported nearly two and a half millions, and to these may be added another million in the United States. It has been estimated that between 1784 and 1841 the natural increase was 200 per cent. With the exception of Rumania, Quebec has the highest birth-rate in the world. Geographical and other conditions have led to the development of a race that possesses an individuality of its own, distinct from that of present-day France as it is also distinct from that of the France of Louis XIII and XIV. General Murray, speaking of the French Canadian in the early days of British rule, paid a tribute to his industry, frugality, morality and natural politeness. These are still the outstanding qualities of the French in Canada. As a race they are extraordinarily self-contained and pure. It is doubtful if in any other country such a work would be possible as Tanguay’s genealogical dictionary of the French Canadians. They have added elements of strength and beauty to the character of the Canadian people. Theirs is the most dramatic and romantic phase of Canadian history. Their literature, particularly in poetry and literary essays, compares very favourably with that of English-speaking Canadians. They have produced such explorers as Jacques Cartier, Champlain, La Salle, Radisson and La Vérendrye; missionaries like Jogues, Chaumonot, Ragueneau, Brébeuf, Lalemant Garnier and Lacombe; statesmen such as LaFontaine, Cartier and Laurier. Bib.: Sulte, Histoire des Canadiens-Français; Garneau, Histoire du Canada; Bibaud, Histoire du Canada; Christie, History of Lower Canada; Le Sueur, Frontenac; De Brumath, Laval; Bradley, Dorchestrer; McIlwraith, Haldimand; DeCelles, Papineau-Cartier; Davidson, Growth of French Canadian Race; Aubert de Gaspé, Les Anciens Canadiens; Salone, La Colonisation de la Nouvelle France; Étude sur les Origines de la Nation Canadienne Française; Greenough, Canadian Folk-Life; Grant, French-Canadian Life and Character; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Tanguay, Dictionnaire Généalogique; Sulte, Origin of the French Canadians (R. S. C., 1905); Nicholson, The French Canadian; Fiske, New France and New England; Lambert, Travels in Canada; Bracq, Evolution of French Canada. See Bibliography in last-named book.

French Language. In 1849 the Imperial Parliament passed an Act repealing the clause of the Union Act declaring English the sole official language of the Legislature. Lord Elgin introduced the new practice by reading his speech in both languages. As early as 1793, in the Rules and Regulations of the House of Assembly of Lower Canada, it was provided that Bills relative to the laws, customs, usages and civil rights of the province “shall be introduced in the French language;” and in the Act of 1794 establishing a Court of King’s Bench for Upper Canada, it is provided that the process to be served upon a defendant who was “a Canadian subject by treaty, or the son or daughter of such Canadian subject” (Canadian here meaning French Canadian) “shall be written in the French language.” Under the Union Act of 1840 English was the official language, but French might be used either in translating documents or in debate. Under the terms of the British North America Act, 1867, either English or French might be used in debates in the Dominion Parliament or Quebec Legislature; both languages were to be used in the records and journals of those Houses; and either language might be used in any Court of Canada or of Quebec. The use of the French language in Ontario schools has been a matter of long and bitter controversy. Bib.: Bourinot, Constitution of Canada; Kennedy, Constitution of Canada; Belcourt, French in Ontario.

Frenchman’s Creek. Near Bridgeburg, Ontario. Scene of an engagement on November 28th, 1812, between British and American troops. A party of American troops landed near Frenchman’s creek, attempted unsuccessfully to destroy the bridge, and finally were forced to retreat to their own side of the river. On May 31st, 1866, a number of Fenians also landed at the same place, but found discretion the better part of valour and hastily retired. A monument marks the spot. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Frobisher, Benjamin. A partner of the North West Company. Took an active part in the development of the western fur trade with his brothers and other Montreal merchants. Died 1787. Bib.: See The memorials of Benjamin Frobisher and Joseph Frobisher, his brother, on the western fur trade, in Archives Report, 1890, and particularly that of Oct. 4, 1784, giving the early history of the North West Company; also correspondence in Archives Report, 1888.

Frobisher, Benjamin. Probably, according to Masson, a son of Joseph Frobisher. Entered service of North West Company, about 1798. Mentioned as clerk of that Company, in 1804 and 1805, and took a violent part in the troubles between the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. Captured by Hudson’s Bay men in 1819, carried to York Factory and imprisoned; escaped, and in a desperate attempt to make his way back to one of the North West Company posts, died of exhaustion at Cedar Lake. Bib.: Wilcocke, Death of Frobisher in Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest.

Frobisher, Joseph. Brother of Benjamin and Thomas. A partner of the North West Company. Member of the fur trading firm of McTavish, Frobisher and Company. Built a fort on Red River, and penetrated to the Churchill River, 1774, where, at Frog Portage, he built a post. Gave the name of English River to the Churchill. Accompanied Alexander Henry up the Saskatchewan in 1775. Returned to Montreal, but retained a large interest in the fur trade until 1798, when he retired. Died in Montreal. His manuscript journal and diary are in the McGill University Library. Bib.: Henry, Travels and Adventures, ed. by Bain; Mackenzie, History of the Fur Trade in his Voyages.

Frobisher, Sir Martin (1535?-1594). Navigator. Made three voyages to America in search of the North-West Passage, 1576, 1577, and 1578. In the first he reached and explored Frobisher Bay, north of the entrance to Hudson Straits. The second and third voyages were made to the same bay, with no particular addition to geographical knowledge. Vice-admiral in Drake’s expedition to West Indies, 1586; led one of the squadrons against the Spanish Armada; took part in Hawkins’ expedition, 1590. Bib.: Collinson, Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Frobisher, Thomas (1744-1792). Partner of the North West Company. With Joseph Frobisher, Alexander Henry, and Peter Pond, in the North-West, 1775. In that year, explored the Churchill River as far as Isle à la Crosse Lake. He had also been west in 1772 when he built a trading post on Sturgeon Lake, north of the Saskatchewan. Bib.: Henry, Travels and Adventures; Mackenzie, History of the Fur Trade in his Voyages.

Frog Lake. About ten miles north of the Saskatchewan and thirty miles from Fort Pitt. A post of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and a Roman Catholic mission, were established here. In the Riel Rebellion of 1885, Big Bear and his Indians attacked the place on April 2nd, and massacred a number of people. See also Riel Rebellion, 1885. Bib.: Saskatchewan Rebellion (Canada in the Great World War, I)

Frog Portage. Or Portage de Traite, leading from the Saskatchewan River, by way of Cumberland Lake, the Sturgeon-Weir River, Heron, Pelican, and Woody Lakes, to the Churchill. It was discovered by Joseph Frobisher, who built a temporary trading post there in 1774. Two years later Thomas Frobisher built a more substantial fort at the same place. He was joined there in that year by Alexander Henry, and plans were matured for intercepting the western Indians on their way down the Churchill to trade at Prince of Wales Fort. Alexander Mackenzie says that the Indians called the portage Athiquisipichigan Ouinigam, or the Portage of the Stretched Frog Skin. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Frontenac, Louis de Buade, Comte de Palluau et de (1620-1698). He entered the army at the age of fifteen, and saw his first service in Holland under the Prince of Orange. In various campaigns in the Low Countries and Italy he acquitted himself with such distinction that at the age of twenty-three he had become colonel of the regiment of Normandy, and in 1646 maréchal de camp or brigadier-general. The peace of Westphalia, 1648, released him from military duty, for the time being. In 1669 he commanded an army of Venetians and French in defending Crete against the Turks. Three years later he was sent to Canada as governor in succession to Courcelles. His first step was to call together the “three estates,” nobles, clergy and people, but his autocratic master made it clear that in Canada as in France representative institutions of any kind were to be discouraged. He was instructed also to tactfully check the pretensions of the Church. In practice this meant rather the Jesuits than the Sulpicians and Récollets. Frontenac’s relations with the latter were amicable, but he had more than one dispute with the Jesuits, and his tenure of office in Canada was an almost continuous struggle of wills with the energetic and ambitious bishop of Quebec, Laval. He also before long came into conflict with the Intendant Duchesneau. These disputes were brought to the attention of the Court, and as both the bishop and the intendant had friends in Paris, the governor was warned to curb his contentious spirit. Meantime he had been energetically carrying out a policy of expansion of the colony’s boundaries and jurisdiction toward the westward. With a military escort, he visited Montreal, and ascended the St. Lawrence to Cataraqui, where he met representatives of the Iroquois and found them in a very friendly mood. At the same time he carried out a project which Courcelles had proposed, by building a fort at Cataraqui. In 1682 the rivalry between the governor and intendant, which had become so fierce that Canada was almost divided into two antagonistic camps, came to a head, and both were recalled to France. Before he left, Frontenac managed to patch up what promised to be a dangerous quarrel between the Iroquois and the Ottawas, arising out of the murder of a Seneca chief; and in view of the aggressive attitude of the Iroquois he took steps to strengthen the fortifications of Montreal. His successors, La Barre and Denonville, were weaklings and made such a mess of Canadian affairs, which were then at a critical stage, that Louis XIV was glad to send Frontenac back as governor. This was in 1689, about a month after war had been declared between France and England. Frontenac was now free to attack the New England settlements, and sent out raiding expeditions under such leaders as Le Moyne de Ste. Hélène, Hertel and Portneuf. A good deal of damage was done, but the principal advantage of the raids from Frontenac’s point of view was its salutary effect on the haughty Iroquois. If Frontenac was prepared to carry war into the very heart of the English territory, he was a man to be reckoned with. In his negotiations with the Iroquois he maintained a firm attitude, in strong contrast to the temporizing policy of his predecessors, and finally sent an expedition against them. The treaty of Ryswick at last brought peace with New England and also, temporarily at least, with the Iroquois. While war was still in progress, however, Sir William Phipps had appeared before Quebec, in 1690, with his fleet and his little army of New Englanders, and summoned Frontenac to surrender the fortress, to which the governor sent a contemptuous refusal. Phipps after a skirmish or two sailed away. Frontenac died at Quebec, November 28th, 1698. Parkman said of him: “Versed in books, polished in courts and salons, without fear, incapable of repose, keen and broad of sight, clear in judgment, prompt in decision, fruitful in resources, unshaken when others despaired; a sure breeder of storms in time of peace, but in time of calamity and danger, a tower of strength ... it was he who saved the colony and led it triumphant from an abyss of ruin.” Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac; Myrand, Frontenac et ses amis; Lorin Le Comte de Frontenac; Legendre, Frontenac; Brady, Frontenac, the Saviour of Canada; LeSueur, Count Frontenac; Colby, The Fighting Governor.

Frontier College. An interesting experiment in bringing education to the worker at his work. Initiated by a group of Canadian educationalists about the beginning of the present century, and has sent some 900 men, graduates and undergraduates of every Canadian university and of some United States universities, as instructors to more than 600 frontier locations in Canada. More than one hundred thousand workers in out of the way parts of the Dominion have been given the opportunity of mental improvement and of fitting themselves for a higher class of work. The field includes lumber camps, mining camps, railroad construction gangs, factory workers, etc. The instructors work with the men during the day and give them instruction in the evenings; they also act as agents for the distribution of books and magazines. Incidentally they are doing valuable work in developing the foreign-born worker into a good citizen and a good Canadian.

Fulford, Francis (1803-1868). Educated at Oxford; ordained, 1828. Consecrated first Anglican bishop of Montreal, 1850, and sailed for Canada the same year. In 1860 metropolitan of the ecclesiastical province of Canada. A village in Brome county, Quebec, named after him. Bib.: Taylor, Brit. Am. and Last Three Bishops; Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland.

Fuller, Thomas Brock (1810-1884). Born in Kingston. Educated at the Grammar Schools at Hamilton and York and at Chambly Theological Seminary. Ordained priest, 1835; laboured in various parts of Canada; archdeacon of Niagara, 1869; bishop of Niagara, 1875. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland.

Fundy, Bay of. Explored by De Monts and Champlain in 1604. Probably visited a hundred years earlier by Basque and Breton fishermen, and possibly by the Northmen several centuries before. Known to the Portuguese as Baia Fundo (Deep Bay). Named by De Monts La Baie Française. The year 1604 witnessed not only the first exploration of which any narrative survives, but also the first European settlement on the shores of the bay. See also Acadia. Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Ganong, Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick (R.S.C., 1896).

Fur Trade. During the French régime it began at Tadoussac about 1608. Later a post was established at the mouth of the Richelieu. About 1610 from twelve to fifteen thousand skins were sent to France and sold there at one pistole each. The trading centre later shifted to Sault Ste. Louis; in 1618 to Three Rivers; then to Quebec and that part of the St. Lawrence. Following the explorations of Champlain, La Salle and others, the fur trade moved west to Detroit, Michilimackinac, Green Bay and the Mississippi, Nipigon, Kaministikwia and the western posts of La Vérendrye. See also under names of trading companies—Company of Canada, Company of De Caën, etc. Soon after the cession of Canada to England, British traders began to explore the west for furs. They followed in the footsteps of French traders to the Great Lakes and the Mississippi, and west of Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg, the Assiniboine and the Saskatchewan, building trading posts at strategic points and getting into touch with the various tribes. These independent traders, realizing the advantages of coöperation, formed themselves into two trading corporations, the North West Company and the X Y Company. Bitter competition between these companies ended in the absorption of the latter by the former. Meanwhile the Hudson’s Bay Company had, after confining its activities for a hundred years to the shores of Hudson Bay, moved inland to meet the competition of the North West Company. That competition also became so intense that union was found to be the only solution. See also Hudson’s Bay Company; North West Company; X Y Company; Montreal Company; Pacific Fur Company; Mackinaw Company; Alexander Henry; Peter Pond; Daniel Williams Harmon; John McLoughlin; Sir James Douglas; Sir George Simpson. Bib.: Mackenzie, History of the Fur Trade in his Voyages; Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest; Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France; Parkman, Works; Henry, Travels and Adventures; Henry-Thompson Journals, ed. by Coues; Harmon, Journal; Franchère, Narrative; Larpenteur, Forty Years a Fur Trader; Chittenden, History of the American Fur Trade; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Willson, The Great Company; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Begg, History of the North-West; Davidson, North West Company.

Gage, Thomas (1721-1787). Entered the army in 1741, and served in Flanders. Fought under Braddock at Monongahela, 1755, and under Abercromby at Ticonderoga, 1758. Took part in the campaign for the conquest of Canada, 1759; made military governor of Montreal after its capitulation, 1760. Succeeded Amherst, 1763, as commander-in-chief, with headquarters at New York. Sailed for England, 1773, leaving Haldimand in command. Returned the following year, as governor of Massachusetts. After the battle of Bunker Hill, 1775, recalled. Bib.: Letters of the Two Commanders-in-Chief, Generals Gage and Washington; Detail and Conduct of the American War, under General Gage. See also Mass. Hist. Soc. Colls., vols. 12, 14, and 34; and Haldimand Papers (Canadian Archives). For biog., see Dict. Nat. Biog.; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Gale, Samuel (1747-1826). Born in England, he came to America about 1770 as a paymaster in the army and eventually settled in New Hampshire. When the Revolution broke out, he became obnoxious to the popular side because of his Loyalist sentiments, and was twice imprisoned. Went to Canada and became provincial secretary. Accompanied Governor Prescott to England to assist in adjusting certain questions of administration. Wrote and published an Essay on Public Credit which is said to have met with the approval of Pitt. Returned to Canada after several years’ absence, and died at Farnham. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Galiano, Dionisio. Accompanied Maurelle in 1792 to North-West Coast. Carried out considerable surveys for the Spanish government, partly in conjunction with Vancouver. Commanded the Spanish battleship Bahama at Trafalgar in 1805. Galiano island on the British Columbia coast, and the remarkable Galiano gallery on Gabriola island, named after him. Bib.: Bancroft, History of the North-West Coast; Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Galicians in Canada. When the district of Athabasca was opened up, in the last decade of the nineteenth century, many foreign settlers flocked in, and among the earliest a number of Galicians and Ruthenians, from Central Europe, who settled in the vicinity of Fort Saskatchewan, Fish Creek, Yorkton and Rosthern. They were farmers, with little means, but in time by dint of hard work put themselves in comfortable circumstances. By the census of 1921 there were in Canada 106,721 classed as Ukrainian, of whom 24,456 were Galician and 16,861 Ruthenian.

Galinée, René de Bréhant de. A member of a noble family of Brittany; came to Canada in 1668. With his fellow-Sulpician, Dollier de Casson (q.v.), carried out an important exploration in 1669-1670, from Montreal up the St. Lawrence, and around the south shore of Lake Ontario to Burlington Bay; thence to the Grand River, which they descended to Lake Erie, where they wintered. In March, 1670, they continued their journey along the north shore of Lake Erie, passed through Lake St. Clair and Lake Huron, and coasting the south side of Manitoulin Island, reached Sault Ste. Marie, where they found Marquette and Dablon. They returned to Montreal by way of Lake Nipissing and the Ottawa. Galinée’s narrative of the journey was sent home to the king. He himself returned to France in 1671. Bib.: Exploration of the Great Lakes, 1669-1670: Galinée’s Narrative and Map, ed. by James H. Coyne (Ont. Hist. Soc., 1903).

Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch (1817-1893). Son of John Galt (q.v.). Worked for some years with the British America Land Company, which was attempting much the same scheme of settlement in the Eastern Townships as the Canada Company had been carrying out in the western parts of Upper Canada. In 1844 he became commissioner, and held the office for twelve years. In 1849 he was elected to the Legislature for Sherbrooke; opposed the Baldwin-LaFontaine government, and voted against the Rebellion Losses bill. Dropped out of public life when the capital was removed from Montreal to Toronto, but in 1853 re-elected for Sherbrooke, and held the same seat up to Confederation. He took a very active part in the movement leading up to Confederation, having urged it in speeches both in the Legislature and elsewhere in 1858. When the short-lived Brown-Dorion administration came to an end, Sir Edmund Head invited Galt to form a government, but he declined. In the Cartier-Macdonald administration, 1858, he accepted the office of minister of finance, but on the express stipulation that the new government would actively support the cause of federation. A clause was embodied in the speech from the throne announcing early discussion with the sister colonies in regard to union, and after the close of the session Galt accompanied Cartier and Rose to England to secure the approval of the British government. In 1865 he again proceeded to England as one of the commissioners to confer with the Imperial government on confederation, defence, reciprocity and other matters. He took part in both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, and went to London in 1867 when the final terms of union were decided upon. In the first Dominion government he became minister of finance, but resigned the same year. He had always been an advocate of protection for native industries, and as early as 1858 had foreshadowed the National Policy of Sir John Macdonald. Appointed high commissioner for Canada in London, 1880; four years later resigned and succeeded by Sir Charles Tupper. Bib.: Works: Canada from 1849 to 1859; Union of the British North American Provinces. For biog., see Skelton, Life of Galt; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development.

Galt, John (1779-1839). Came to Canada, 1824; returned to England; came out again in 1826, remaining until 1829. Associated in the Canada Company, with William Dunlop, Thomas Talbot, and Samuel Strickland. Founded towns of Guelph and Goderich. Town of Galt named after him. See Canada Company; Dunlop; Talbot; Strickland. Bib.: Works: Ayrshire Legatees; Annals of the Parish; Sir Andrew Wylie; The Entail; Bogle Corbet; Stanley Buxton; Eken Erskine; The Lost Child; The Member; The Radical; Laurie Todd; Life of Byron; Lives of the Players; Autobiography; Literary Life and Miscellanies. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Lizars, Days of the Canada Company.

Galt, Sir Thomas (1815-1901). Son of John Galt. For several years in the employ of the Canada Company. Studied law and called to the bar, 1845. Q. C., 1858. Appointed to the Court of Common Pleas, 1869, and became chief-justice, 1887. Knighted following year. Retired from the bench, 1894. Bib.: Skelton, Life of Galt.

Galt. City of Ontario, on the Grand river. Named after John Galt, the novelist, who was commissioner of the Canada Company. The city was founded by William Dickson, a school friend of Galt, in 1816, and the post office was opened in that year. It was first known as Shade’s Mills, and changed to Galt in 1827. Incorporated as a town in 1857, and as a city in 1915. Bib.: Douglas, Canadian City Names; Lizars, Days of the Canada Company.

Garneau, François-Xavier (1809-1866). French-Canadian historian. Spent two years in Paris and London. Studied law and practised as a notary; afterwards clerk of the Legislative Assembly, and city clerk of Quebec; member of the Council of Public Instruction; president of the Institut Canadien. His history, which first appeared in three volumes between 1845 and 1848, is written quite frankly from the point of view of French Canada. The translation by Bell is unreliable, the translator having added material not in the original text, and quite inconsistent with Garneau’s viewpoint. Bib.: Histoire du Canada. Fifth edition, ed. by Hector Garneau. Trans. by Andrew Bell. For biog., see Casgrain, F.-X. Garneau; Morgan, Cel. Can. and Bib. Can.

Garnier, Charles (1605-1649). Arrived at Quebec from France, and accompanied Jogues and Chatelain to the Huron mission, 1636; and journeyed with the former to the Tobacco Nation, near Nottawasaga Bay, 1639-1640. Returned to the Huron mission, where he died a martyr to his faith, slain by an Iroquois hatchet. Bib.: Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Lalemant, Rélation des Hurons, 1640; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America.

Garnier, Julien (1643-1730). Born in France, he entered the Jesuit order in 1660. Came to Quebec shortly afterwards, and was sent to the Seneca mission, in the Genesee valley, where he remained for many years. In 1710 he returned to Quebec, and spent the remainder of his life in ministering to the Indians on the St. Lawrence. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Garreau, Leonard (1609-1656). Born at Arédieux, Limoges, France; entered the Jesuit order, 1628; studied theology at Rome; sailed from La Rochelle for Canada, 1643, with Chabanel, Druillettes and other missionaries. Sent to Huronia, he arrived there the following year, went back to Lake Nipissing, and accompanied a party of Algonquians from camp to camp. In 1646 he accompanied Garnier to the Petun mission. After the massacre of the Hurons by the Iroquois in 1649, Garreau was left alone in the Huron country; finally he followed the remnants of the tribe to St. Joseph island, and from there back to Quebec. In 1656 he started west again with Father Druillettes and a party of Ottawas. They were ambushed by the Iroquois near Montreal, and in the fight Garreau was mortally wounded. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Garry, Nicholas. The Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company having been amalgamated in 1821, Garry, then a director of the former Company, was sent out to the North-West with Simon McGillivray, in that year, to make the necessary arrangements. Garry’s diary of this journey is published in the Royal Society Trans., 1900. Subsequently deputy governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1822-1835. Fort Garry was named after him. Bib.: Bryce, Manitoba and Hudson’s Bay Company.

Gaspé. See Aubert de Gaspé.

Gaspé Peninsula. Between the St. Lawrence and Chaleur Bay. The name is of uncertain derivation. According to Ganong, it first appeared in 1542 in the “Routier” of Jean Alphonse as Bay of Molues or Gaspé. Champlain has Gachepé in 1603, and Gaspé in 1613. Various authorities derive the name from Abnaki or Micmac words meaning the end or extremity. Jacques Cartier may not have been the first white man to land on the shores of the peninsula, but his voyage of 1534 is the earliest definite record. For the next hundred years the Gaspé shore was visited only by occasional fishermen from Normandy or the Bay of Biscay. In 1619 the first mission was established. Nine years later Kirke defeated De Roquemont in Gaspé Bay. In 1636 Nicolas Denys made the first permanent settlement. Hovenden Walker anchored in Gaspé Bay on his way to attack Quebec in 1711; and Wolfe spent a month there in 1758 with the fleet. Nicolas Cox was lieutenant-governor of Gaspé in 1774, and was succeeded by Francis LeMoine. The office was a sinecure, but survived for about fifty years. The population of Gaspé to-day is pretty well confined to fishing villages, the interior being for the most part uninhabited. Bib.: Clarke, The Heart of Gaspé; Le Clerq, New Relation of Gaspesia.

Gaspereau River. A small tidal stream, flowing into the Basin of Minas. Grand Pré, once a principal settlement of the Acadians, stands upon its banks. Bib.: Burpee, By Canadian Streams.

Gavazzi Riots. Father Gavazzi, a former monk, had become a Protestant, and his lectures in Quebec and Montreal in 1854, purporting to expose the errors of his former faith, led to riots in both cities. In Montreal troops were called out, and through a misunderstanding shots were fired and blood was shed. Brown attacked the government for failure to suppress the riots. Bib.: Gavazzi, Lectures and Life; Dent, Last Forty Years; Hincks, Reminiscences.

Gazette (Halifax). First newspaper published in what is now the Dominion of Canada. Established, 1752 by Bartholomew Green, whose father had been the publisher of the Boston News-Letter, the first newspaper published in America. Green brought his press and types from Boston to Halifax. He died before he could bring out the first issue, but his assistant John Bushell carried on. Among the advertisements was one of the sale of several negro slaves. Bib.: Wallis, Hist. Sketch of Canadian Journalism, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 5.

Gazette (Montreal). Established, 1778 by Fleury de Mesplet, type, press and paper having been brought to Montreal by Benjamin Franklin and the other commissioners sent by Congress to convert the Canadians to republicanism. The paper was at first printed in French, and issued from the Château de Ramezay; later in French and English, and finally in English. Still survives after an eventful career of nearly a century and a half. Bib.: Wallis, Hist. Sketch of Can. Journalism, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 5.

Gazette (Quebec). Established, 1764, by two Philadelphia printers, William Brown and Thomas Gilmour. Type, press and paper were brought from England. Printed half in English and half in French. Lived for more than a century under various publishers and editors. Represented on the whole the views of the English in Quebec, and fell under the displeasure of the Legislative Assembly. Opposed union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. Bib.: Wallis, Hist. Sketch of Can. Journalism, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 5.

Gazette (Toronto). Established by William Lyon Mackenzie. First issue appeared May 12th, 1838. Ceased publication in December, 1840. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

General Commissioner for Canada in France. Hector Fabre, 1882-1910; Philippe Roy, 1910.

Genet, Edmond Charles (1765-1834). Minister of France to the United States, 1793. Sent agents to Canada to stir up disaffection among the French Canadians. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Geological Survey. First suggested by Dr. Rae, in 1832. W. E. (afterwards Sir) Logan was appointed provincial geologist, 1842, and, the government having decided to carry out a geological survey of the province, he took charge of the work the following year. He was succeeded by Sir J. W. Dawson (q.v.). The establishment of the survey was largely the result of petitions presented by the Natural History Society of Montreal, and the Quebec Literary and Historical Society. The first report was for the year 1843. Twenty years later, the reports 1843-1863 were summarized in a volume of 983 pages, Geology of Canada. The periods 1863-1866 and 1866-1869 were each covered in a single report. Thereafter, annual volumes were published down to 1906, when separate series of reports and memoirs were substituted. Two general indexes have been issued, one for the reports 1863-1884, and the second for 1885-1906.

George, Sir Rupert D. Provincial secretary of Nova Scotia. Appointed to the Executive Council, 1838. The provincial secretaryship had been a permanent appointment by the king. In 1848, when Joseph Howe came into power, George was dismissed from office, and Howe succeeded him. He had challenged Howe to a duel in 1840. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Georgia, Strait of. Between Vancouver Island and the mainland of British Columbia. Named by Vancouver in 1792 in honour of George III. The previous year Eliza, of the Spanish navy had named it “Gran Canal de Nuestra Senora del Rosario la Marinera.” Vancouver had called it gulf, but in 1865 Captain Richards, hydrographer, changed it to strait. Still locally known as “the Gulf.” Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Georgian Bay. An arm of Lake Huron. Discovered by Joseph Le Caron, a Franciscan, 1615. Champlain reached the shores of the bay the same year, by way of the Ottawa river, Lake Nipissing and French river. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Atlas of Canada.

Germain, Charles. Appointed missionary to the Abnaki Indians on the St. John river in 1745. Said to have been the authorized agent of the government of Quebec for the purpose of destroying British supremacy in Acadia. Assisted De Ramezay in his plans for the attack on Mines, 1747. Removed to Miramichi, 1757. After the fall of Quebec, supported the cause of the British. Received a pension of £50 a year from the government at Halifax, 1761. Retired to Quebec, taking with him a number of Indian families. Died, 1779. Bib.: Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins; Richard, Acadia.

German Colonists in Canada. German mercenaries were used in the war between Great Britain and the rebellious colonists of America, and in 1776 German regiments under Riedesel helped to drive the Americans out of Canada. Some of these were disbanded and settled in Canada. A certain number of Germans were also included among the United Empire Loyalists and among those who came to Canada from the United States after the days of the Loyalists. By the census of 1921, there were 294,636 persons in Canada of German origin, of whom 130,545 were in Ontario, 68,202 in Saskatchewan, 35,333 in Alberta, 27,046 in Nova Scotia, 19,444 in Manitoba, and the remainder scattered throughout the other provinces.

Gerrymander. See Redistribution Bill.

Gibbons, Sir George Christie (1848-1918). Born at St. Catharines, Ontario. Called to the bar, 1869; K. C, 1891. Chairman of the Canadian Section of the International Waterways Commission, 1905. Took a very active part in the negotiations that led up to the treaty of 1909, and the creation of the International Joint Commission. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Gibbs, Thomas Nicholson (1821-1883). Born in Terrebonne, Quebec. Engaged in business pursuits at Oshawa. Defeated for election to the Assembly for South Ontario, 1854, but successful, 1865. Elected to represent South Ontario in the House of Commons, 1867, the defeated candidate being George Brown. Secretary of state, and minister of inland revenue, in the government of Sir John A. Macdonald, 1873. Appointed to the Senate, 1880. Bib.: Gemmill, Parl. Comp.

Gibson, David. Involved in the Upper Canadian Rebellion, 1837-1838. He organized shooting matches to train the rebels in marksmanship. The rebels met at his house, December 3rd, 1837. His house was afterwards burned by the Loyalists. He escaped to the United States. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

Gibson, Sir John Morrison (1842-). Educated at the University of Toronto; studied law and called to the bar of Ontario, 1867. Elected to the Ontario Assembly for Hamilton, 1879; provincial secretary, 1889; commissioner of crown lands, 1896; attorney-general, 1889-1905; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1908-1914. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Giffard, Robert. First seigneur in New France. Mentioned at Quebec in 1627; came out with forty colonists; captured by Kirke and landed on St. Pierre Island; returned to France, 1629; established at his Beauport seigneury, 1634; a member of the Council, 1646; syndic of Quebec, 1648; gave his St. Gabriel property to the Jesuits, 1667. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Gilbert, Thomas (1714?-1796?). Born in New England. In 1745 served as a captain at the siege of Louisbourg under Sir William Pepperell. In the French war of 1755 he was a lieutenant-colonel in the Massachusetts forces under Brigadier-General Ruggles. Took part in the expedition against Crown Point, and succeeded to the command of his regiment. In 1774 raised a regiment of Loyalists and commanded them during the Revolutionary War. Two years later he sailed with the army to Halifax, and in 1778 was proscribed and banished. He settled in Nova Scotia in 1783, and moved to New Brunswick in 1786. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Gillam, Benjamin. Son of Zachariah. Commanded a trading expedition from Boston to Hudson Bay in 1683, and built a fort some miles up the Nelson River. Pierre Radisson captured the fort, and carried Gillam a prisoner to Quebec, where he was promptly released by the governor. Sailed for Boston, and arrested on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay Company for poaching in their territory. Turned pirate a year or two later; captured at Boston, carried to England with Captain Kidd, who had been arrested at the same time, and hanged with his fellow pirate. Bib.: Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West.

Gillam, Zachariah. A New England skipper, sent out in 1668 by Prince Rupert and his associates, to Hudson Bay, in command of the Nonsuch, on a voyage of exploration and trade. Medard Chouart (q.v.) sailed with him, while Pierre Radisson (q.v.) followed, in 1669, in the Waveno. Gillam’s journal of the voyage is quoted in Joseph Robson’s Hudson’s Bay. Made several subsequent voyages to the bay, on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1684 his ship crushed in the ice at the mouth of the Nelson River, and he and several of the crew perished. Bib.: Robson, Account of Six Years’ Residence in Hudson’s Bay; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Ginseng. An herb of the genus Asalia, whose aromatic root is much prized by the Chinese. Found in Canada by the Jesuits, and gathered for shipment to China. Brought five dollars a pound. The Indians engaged in the trade. Still to some extent an article of commerce.

Gipps, Sir George (1791-1847). Born at Ringwould, England. Educated at King’s School, Canterbury, and at the Military Academy, Woolwich. Entered the army, 1809; served throughout the Peninsular War; employed in the West Indies, 1824-1829; appointed private secretary to the first lord of the Admiralty, 1834; sent to Canada as commissioner, together with Lord Gosford and Sir Charles Grey, to attempt to allay prevailing discontent, 1835; knighted, 1835; governor of New South Wales, 1838-1846. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Lang, New South Wales.

Girouard, Désiré (1836-1911). Born at St. Timothée, Quebec. Educated at Montreal College; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. For some years sat in the House of Commons. Appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Canada, 1895. Wrote on the early history of the island of Montreal, La Salle and Lachine, and the Iroquois. Bib.: Lake St. Louis and Cartier de la Salle; Les Anciens Postes du Lac Saint Louis. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Canadian Who’s Who.

Girouard, Sir Edouard Percy Cranwill. Born at Montreal in 1867. Son of preceding. Educated at the Royal Military College. For some years on the engineering staff of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Joined the Royal Engineers in 1888; lieutenant, 1891; captain, 1899; major, 1899; lieutenant-colonel, 1904; colonel, 1909. Railway traffic manager at Woolwich, 1890-1895. Director of Soudan railways, 1896-1898. President of Egyptian Railway Board, 1898-1899. Director of railways in South Africa, 1899-1902. Commissioner of railways, Transvaal and Orange River Colony, 1902-1904. Assistant quartermaster-general at Chester, England, 1906. High commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, 1907-1908. Governor of Northern Nigeria, 1908-1909. Governor and commander-in-chief of East Africa Protectorate, 1909-1912; director-general munitions supply, 1915; director of Armstrong, Whitworth & Company, 1916-1919. Served with the Dongola Expedition, 1896-1897; and through the South African War, 1899-1902. Bib.: History of the Railways during the War in South Africa. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Girouard, John Joseph (1795-1855). Born in Quebec. Studied law, and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1816. Elected to the Assembly, 1830; a strong supporter of Papineau; took an active part in the Rebellion of 1837-1838; imprisoned at Montreal for six months. Resumed the practice of law. Associated with LaFontaine in constitutional agitation in Lower Canada. Offered a portfolio in the LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, but refused to accept office; took no further part in public life. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Gisborne, Frederick Newton (1824-1892). Came to Canada from England in 1845. Joined the staff of the British North American Electric Telegraph Association, 1847, and became general manager. In 1852, laid the first submarine cable in America, joining New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island; and in 1856, laid another to Newfoundland. Conceived the idea of connecting Europe and America by a submarine cable, and succeeded in enlisting the interest of Cyrus W. Field. The cable finally completed, 1858. Appointed superintendent of the Dominion government telegraph and signal service, 1879. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Giscome Portage. Leading from the Parsnip River to the Fraser, in northern British Columbia. Named by an independent trader, Peter Dunlevy, after his cook, about the year 1873. Both Mackenzie and Simon Fraser crossed from the Parsnip to the Fraser, the former in 1793, and the latter in 1806, but neither went by way of Giscome Portage, which was not discovered until some years later. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Givenchy, Battle of. After Festubert (q.v.) the Canadians were sent to reserve billets at Bethune. In June, 1915, they were back in the trenches east of Givenchy, with the task of wresting from the Germans certain positions which had proved troublesome, and straightening out an awkward salient. The operations were confined to General Mercer’s brigade, and the actual fighting mainly to the 1st Battalion. Two field guns had been brought up to the front line trenches, and, before they were put out of action, had managed to sweep away the German entanglements. A heavy mine was also exploded, and the men went over the top, rushed the German trenches and drove out the enemy. The Imperial troops on the left had, however, been held up by the wire, and the Canadians were left at the mercy of a tremendous bombardment from three sides. They hung on for a time, fighting desperately, but finally had to be withdrawn. Inadequate artillery preparation on the left had made success impossible. Bib.: Marquis, The Fight at Givenchy (Canada in the Great World War, vol. iii).

Gladstone, William Ewart (1809-1898). British statesman. In defending the repeal of the Corn Laws, and replying to complaints from Canada, he held that the true basis of imperial unity lay in common feelings, traditions and hopes. Not favourable to building of the Intercolonial, and insisted on sinking fund. Member of committee to discuss Confederation and Canadian defences. Believed Canada’s destiny to be independence. Opposed the Rebellion Losses bill in the Imperial House. In 1871 he withdrew claim on behalf of Canada upon United States for compensation for Fenian Raids. Bib.: Works: The State in its Relations with the Church; Gleanings from Past Years. For biog., see Morley, The Life of William Ewart Gladstone; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Gladwin, Henry. Joined, the army, 1753; came to America as lieutenant in the 48th Regiment in 1755, and took part in the expedition under Braddock; transferred to the 80th Regiment, promoted captain, and wounded at Ticonderoga in 1758; promoted to rank of major, 1759; in garrison at Montreal, 1760-1761; in command at Detroit during siege by Pontiac; served throughout the American Revolutionary War; returned to England, 1764; major-general, 1782. Died in England, 1791. Bib.: Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac; Moor, The Gladwin Manuscripts; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Glegg, J. B. Captain and aide-de-camp to General Brock. Carried summons for surrender of Detroit; and also bore despatches to Quebec announcing the victory. Bib.: Richardson, War of 1812, ed. by Casselman; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Glenelg, Charles Grant, Baron (1778-1866). As colonial secretary, 1835-1839, he had to deal with many important matters relating to the affairs of British North America, including the Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada. He was opposed to colonial self-government, though his views became modified in a measure after Durham’s Report had been published. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Glengarry. A county in Ontario, on the St. Lawrence. Named after the famous glen in Inverness, Scotland. Many Scottish Highlanders left their native country after the battle of Culloden in 1746, and emigrated to America. They were all intensely loyal, and when the Revolution broke out many moved north into Canada, settling on the Niagara frontier, the bay of Quinte, and the banks of the St. Lawrence. From the latter settlement sprang the present Glengarry County. In 1804-1805 Bishop McDonell obtained several grants of land in the district for the Highlanders of the disbanded Scottish Glengarry regiment, and for twenty-five years promoted the interests of the colonists. He raised, in 1812, the Glengarry Fencibles regiment, which rendered valuable service during the war. Bib.: Macdonell, Sketches Illustrating the Early Settlement and History of Glengarry in Canada.

Globe. Newspaper published at Toronto; established, 1844, by George Brown and his father Peter Brown. First issued as a daily in 1853. Absorbed North American and Examiner in 1855. Its declaration of principles included the entire separation of Church and State, abolition of the Clergy Reserves and restoration of the lands to the public, cessation of grants of public money for sectarian purposes, abolition of tithes and other compulsory taxation for ecclesiastical purposes, and restraint on land-holding by ecclesiastical corporations. It also stood for representation by population, a system of public education free from sectarianism, and a prohibitory liquor law. Bib.: Wallis, Historical Sketch of Canadian Journalism, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 5; Buckingham, George Brown and the Globe, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 5; Mackenzie, Hon. George Brown; Lewis, George Brown.

Godefroy de Linctot, René (1675-1748). Married Madeleine LeMoyne. Wrote a history of the Sioux. In command at La Pointe, 1720-1726; at Detroit, 1726; at Lake Pepin on Mississippi, 1731-1733. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Goderich, Viscount. See Ripon.

Goderich. Town in Ontario, situated at mouth of River Maitland, Huron county, Ontario. Named after Frederick John Robinson, Viscount Goderich and Karl of Ripon (1782-1859). Founded by John Gait and William Dunlop, 1828. Incorporated as a town, 1850. The name was first intended by the directors of the Canada Company to be applied to Guelph, but John Galt applied it to the present town. Bib.: Lizars, Days of the Canada Company.

Gold-mining. See Yukon; Cariboo; Porcupine; Red Lake; Rouyn.

Good, Herman James. Corporal, 13th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Won the Victoria Cross at Hangard Wood, August 8th, 1918. His company being held up by heavy fire from three machine guns, he dashed forward alone, killed several of the garrison and captured the remainder. Later he with three other men charged a battery of 5.9 in. guns under point-blank fire and captured the entire crews of three guns.

Gordon, Arthur Hamilton. See Stanmore.

Gore, Sir Charles S. Born in Scotland, 1793; the third son of the second Earl of Arran. Entered the army, 1808; served throughout the Peninsular War; ordered to Canada, 1814; returned to Europe and present at the battle of Waterloo, 1815. Again came to Canada; in command of the troops in Lower Canada during the Rebellion of 1837-1838; subsequently knighted and advanced to the rank of lieutenant-general. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Gore, Sir Francis (1769-1852). Served in the army; lieutenant-governor of Bermuda, 1804; lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1806-1817. Brock had a high opinion of his character and ability. Postponed secularization of Clergy Reserves by proroguing the Legislature. Bib.: Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada; Kingsford, History of Canada.

Gore District. In Upper Canada; named after Governor Gore.

Gorham, John. A native of Massachusetts. Stationed at Annapolis in command of a body of provincial troops, 1845; sent to Boston to procure aid against a threatened attack; induced to proceed to the siege of Louisbourg under Pepperell; appointed colonel. Returned to Annapolis and placed in command of the Boston troops sent to Mines with Colonel Noble. Afterwards commanded a body of Rangers raised in New England for service in Acadia. A member of the Council of Nova Scotia. Returned to Massachusetts, 1752. Bib.: Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins; Marshall, Life of Pepperell.

Gosford, Archibald Acheson, second Earl of (1775?-1849). Governor-general of Canada, 1835-1838. He had been sent out to conciliate the French Canadians, being a man of tact and moderation, and managed to make himself very popular, but the publication in Toronto of abstracts from his secret instructions from the Colonial Office, to the effect that no concessions were to be made to the people of Lower Canada, again put the country in a ferment. He remained throughout the period of the Rebellion, and returned in 1838 to be replaced by Durham and then by Colborne. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; DeCelles, Papineau-Cartier.

Gosselin, Abbé Auguste Honoré (1843-). French-Canadian historian. Born at St. Charles de Bellechasse, Quebec. Educated at Quebec Seminary and at Laval University. Ordained priest, 1866; subsequently chancellor of the Quebec Diocese, and vicar of the Basilica. Retired from the ministry to devote himself to literary and historical work, 1893. Bib.: Works: Vie de Laval; Les Normands au Canada; Henri de Bernières; Le Docteur Labrie; Québec en 1730; Mgr. de Saint-Vallier et son Temps; Jean Nicolet; D’Iberville; Jean Bourdon. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Gouin, Sir Lomer (1861-). Born in Grondines, Quebec. Educated at Sorel College and Laval University, Montreal; studied law and called to the bar of Quebec, 1881. Elected to the Quebec Assembly for the St. James division of Montreal, 1897; minister of public works in the Parent administration, 1900; premier and attorney-general, 1905; knighted, 1908. Resigned as premier, 1920. Elected to House of Commons, 1921, and became minister of justice in King government the same year. Resigned, 1924. Bib.: Canadian Who’s Who.

Gourlay, Robert Fleming (1778-1863). Born in the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, Scotland. Attended St. Andrew’s University. Took part in an inquiry into the condition of the poor in Great Britain, and carried on an aggressive agitation for a reform of the poor laws. Came to Canada, 1817, and settled at Kingston. Becoming convinced of the need of radical changes in the land system of Upper Canada, attacked the administration with so much energy that he was finally imprisoned and, after a grossly unfair trial, expelled from the province. Returning to Scotland, devoted himself to the preparation of his work on Upper Canada; lost most of his property as the result of lawsuits; and imprisoned for a personal attack on Lord Brougham in the lobby of the House of Commons. On his release, visited the United States about 1836, and was instrumental in dissuading Ohio sympathizers from joining the movement under William Lyon Mackenzie. In 1842 his case brought before the Legislature of Upper Canada, and the House decided that his arrest had been “illegal, unconstitutional and without possibility of excuse and palliation, and the sentence declared null and void.” Did not, however, return to Canada until 1856, when he was granted a pension of fifty pounds; this he refused because he considered that his vindication had not been complete. Contested Oxford County in 1860, but defeated; returned to Edinburgh, where he died. Bib.: Statistical Account of Upper Canada. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Governors. See also Lieutenant-Governors; Viceroys; Intendants; Premiers.

Governors of British Columbia. James Douglas, 1858-1864; Frederick Seymour, 1864-1869; Anthony Musgrave, 1869-1871. (In 1866 Vancouver Island and British Columbia were united, and the governors administered the affairs of the combined colonies).

Governors of Canada. James Murray, 1763-1768; Guy Carleton, 1768-1778; Frederick Haldimand, 1778-1786; Lord Dorchester (Carleton), 1786-1796; Robert Prescott, 1796-1807; Sir James H. Craig, 1807-1811; Sir George Prevost, 1812-1815; Sir John C. Sherbrooke, 1816-1818; Duke of Richmond, 1818-1819; Lord Dalhousie, 1820-1828; Lord Aylmer, 1831-1835; Lord Gosford, 1835-1838; Lord Durham, 1838; Sir John Colborne, 1839; Lord Sydenham (Poulett Thomson), 1839-1841; Sir Charles Bagot, 1842-1843; Sir Charles Metcalfe, 1843-1845; Lord Cathcart, 1846-1847; Lord Elgin, 1847-1854; Sir Edmund W. Head, 1854-1861; Viscount Monck, 1861-1867.

Governors of Cape Breton. John Parr, 1784. Between 1786 and 1820, when Cape Breton became part of Nova Scotia, the governors of Canada were also governors of Cape Breton, being represented in the colony by administrators. See Governors of Canada.

Governors of Montreal. Paul de Chomedy de Maisonneuve, 1642-1664; Zacharie Dupuis, 1665-1668; Pierre de Saint-Paul de Lamothe, 1669-1670; Francois-Marie Perrot, 1669-1684; Louis-Hector de Callières, 1684-1698; Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1698-1703; Claude de Ramezay, 1704-1723; Charles LeMoyne, Baron de Longueuil, 1724-1729; Jean Bouillet de La Chassaigne, 1730-1733; Chevalier Boisberthelot de Beaucours, 1733-1749; Charles LeMoyne, Baron de Longueuil, 1749-1755; Francois de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, 1757-1760. After the cession of Canada to England, Thomas Gage, 1760-1763; Ralph Burton, 1763-1764.

Governors of New Brunswick. Thomas Carleton, 1784-1786. Between 1786 and 1867 the governors of Canada were also governors of New Brunswick. See Governors of Canada.

Governors of New France. Samuel Champlain, 1612-1635; Charles Huault de Montmagny, 1636-1648; Louis d’Ailleboust de Coulonge, 1648-1651; Jean de Lauson, 1651-1657; Pierre Voyer, Vicomte d’Argenson, 1658-1661; Pierre Dubois, Baron d’Avaugour, 1661-1663; Augustin de Saffray, Chevalier Mézy, 1663-1665; Daniel de Rémy, Sieur de Courcelles, 1665-1672; Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, 1672-1682; Joseph Antoine Lefebvre de La Barre, 1682-1685; Jacques-René de Brisay, Marquis de Denonville, 1685-1689; Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac, 1689-1698; Louis Hector de Callières, 1699-1703; Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1705-1725; Charles, Marquis de Beauharnois, 1726-1747; Jacques Pierre de Taffanel, Marquis de la Jonquière, 1749-1752; Michel Ange, Marquis de Duquesne de Menneville, 1752-1755; Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1755-60.

Governors of Nova Scotia. Thomas Temple, 1657; Marc Harrison, 1661; Charles Breedon, 1661-1662; Sir Thomas Temple, 1662-1667; Samuel Vetch, 1710-1713; Francis Nicholson, 1713; Samuel Vetch, 1714-1715; Richard Philipps, 1717-1749; Edward Cornwallis, 1749-1752; Peregrine Thomas Hopson, 1752-1756; Charles Lawrence, 1756-1761; Henry Ellis, 1761-1763; Montague Wilmot, 1763-1766; Lord William Campbell, 1766-1773; Francis Legge, 1773-1782; John Parr, 1782-1786. Between 1786 and 1867 the governors of Canada were also governors of Nova Scotia. See Governors of Canada.

Governors of Prince Edward Island. Captain Walter Patterson, 1769-1784. Between 1786 and 1867 the governors of Canada were also governors of Prince Edward Island. See Governors of Canada. From 1867 to 1873 when it entered Confederation, the colony was governed by Lieutenant-Governors, Archibald E H. Anson, 1867-1870; William Cleaver Francis Robinson, 1870-1873.

Governors of Three Rivers. Laviolette, 1634-1636; Antoine de Bréault de L’Isle, 1636; Marc Antoine Bras-de-fer de Châteaufort, 1636-1638; André de Malapart, 1639; Francois de Champfleur, 1639-1642; Sergeant Desrochers, 1642-1643; Francois de Champfleur, 1643-1645; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1645-1648; Charles Le Gardeur de Tilly, 1648; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1650-1651; de Kerbodot Duplessis, 1651-1652; Pierre Boucher, 1652; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1652-1653; Pierre Boucher, 1653-1658; Jacques LeNeuf de la Poterie, 1658-1662; Pierre Boucher, 1662-1667; Arnoult de Loubias, 1668; René Gaultier de Varennes, 1668-1689; Claude de Ramezay, 1690-1699; François Prévost, 1699-1702; Marquis de Crisasy, 1702-1709; Louis François de Galiffet, 1709-1717; Charles LeMoyne, Baron de Longueuil, 1720-1724; Francois Desjordis de Saint-George de Cabanac, 1725-1726; Jean Bouillet de la Chassaigne, 1727-1730; Josué Maurice Dubois Berthelet de Beaucours, 1730-1733; Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, 1733-1742; Michel Bégon, 1742-1748; François de Rigaud de Vaudreuil, 1748-1757; Paul Joseph LeMoyne de Longueuil, 1757-1760. After the cession of Canada to England, Ralph Burton, 1760-1762; Frederick Haldimand, 1762-1763; Ralph Burton, 1763; Frederick Haldimand, 1763-1764; Hector Theophilus Cramahé, 1764.

Governors of Vancouver Island. Richard Blanshard, 1850-1851; James Douglas, 1851-1764; Arthur Kennedy, 1864-1866. See also Governors of British Columbia.

Governors-General of Canada. Viscount Monck, 1867-1868; Baron Lisgar (Young), 1869-1872; Lord Dufferin, 1872-1878; Lord Lorne, 1878-1883; Lord Lansdowne, 1883-1888; Lord Derby (Stanley of Preston), 1888-1893; Lord Aberdeen, 1893-1898; Lord Minto, 1898-1904; Lord Grey, 1904-1911; Duke of Connaught, 1911-1916; Duke of Devonshire, 1916-1921; Lord Byng, 1921-1926.

Gowan, Ogle R. (1796-1876). Born in Ireland. Edited for some years the Antidote, published in Dublin. Came to Canada, 1829, and settled in the county of Leeds. At once took a leading part in the politics of Canada. First elected to the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada, 1834, and continued as representative, with brief intervals, until 1861. Served in the militia during the troubles of 1837-1838; commanded the right wing at the battle of the “Windmill” and severely wounded. Challenged Hincks to a duel in 1844. Insulted Lord Elgin because of his action in connection with the Rebellion Losses bill. For twenty years grandmaster of the Orange Order. Bib.: Responsible or Parliamentary Government. For biog., see Cyc. Am. Biog.; Davin, Irishman in Canada; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dent, Last Forty Years.

Graham Island. Queen Charlotte Islands. Named after Sir James Robert Graham, first lord of the admiralty, 1852-1855, by Commander James C. Prevost, who was on the Pacific coast in H. M. S. Virago in 1853. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Grand Manan. An island in the Bay of Fundy, off Passamaquoddy Bay. The name is from the Passamaquoddy or Micmac word Mun-aa-nook, meaning “the island,” with the French prefix Grand to distinguish it from “Petit Manan” on the Maine coast. First discovered by Champlain. The name appears as “Menane” in Lescarbot, 1609; as “Manano” in Biard, 1611; as “Manthane” and “Menane,” in Champlain, 1613. On a map of 1610 it is given as “Peree,” and on another of 1642 as “Esperee.” The island is about twenty miles long and about five miles wide. By the Hawkesbury-King Convention of 1817, the island became British territory. Its picturesque scenery has made it the resort of painters and lovers of nature. Bib.: Ganong, Place Nomenclature of New Brunswick; Abbott, Grand Manan and ’Quoddy Bay, (Harpers, 1878); Day, Grim Grand Manan, (Harpers, 1912); Jonathan Eddy and Grand Manan, (Acadiensis, 1906).

Grand Portage. Near western end of Lake Superior, about twenty miles south of Fort William. As in the case of so many other historic Canadian places, it is impossible to say who was the first white man to stand upon this famous centre of the fur trade. Radisson came this way in 1662; Du Lhut in 1678; Noyon in 1688; La Noüe in 1717; but there is no evidence that any of the four were actually at Grand Portage. It is first mentioned in a memoir by Pachot, 1722; and the earliest authenticated visit to the spot is that of La Vérendrye, 1731. When Jonathan Carver visited the place in 1767 he found a number of traders already there. Alexander Henry was there in 1775 and notes that it was the scene of hostile competition. The North West Company had a trading post at Grand Portage for some years, and it grew steadily in importance until finally abandoned, 1801, in favour of Fort William. The name was applied both to the trading post on the shore of Lake Superior, and to the portage thence to the Pigeon river. Dr. Bryce describes the place as it was about the beginning of the present century, in his Mackenzie, Selkirk, Simpson. To-day an excellent motor road crosses Pigeon river near the old portage, on its way from Duluth to Fort William. Bib.: Mackenzie, History of Fur Trade in his Voyages; Henry-Thompson Journals, ed. by Coues; Henry, Travels and Adventures; Carver, Travels; Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Buck, Story of Grand Portage in Minnesota Hist. Bull., vol. v.

Grand Pré. A village on the shores of the Basin of Minas, at the mouth of the Gaspereau river. Stands upon or near the site of the old village of the same name, founded about 1675, one of the principal settlements of the Acadians. The scene of many conflicts between the French and English; and of the final expulsion of the Acadians. See Acadians. Bib.: Parkman, Half-Century of Conflict and Montcalm and Wolfe.

Grand Trunk Railway. One of the main results of the railway policy of Francis Hincks. About the middle of the nineteenth century work was in progress on the St. Lawrence, the Great Western and the Northern railways. The next project was a trunk line from Quebec or Montreal through to Hamilton, from which point the Great Western already ran to Windsor, opposite Detroit. The great railway contractors, Peto, Brassey, Betts and Jackson, offered to undertake the work, and to organize a company in England to provide the capital. Hincks made a contract with them substantially on these terms. Meanwhile Galt, Holton and other Canadians had become interested in a purely Canadian railway scheme. After a good deal of political jockeying, the English and Canadian interests were brought together. In 1852 the Grand Trunk Railway Company was incorporated, and in 1853 work was begun on construction. At one time 14,000 men were directly employed on the work. Before the end of the year the St. Lawrence and Atlantic section was completed; in 1854 the Quebec and Richmond section was opened; the next year the line from Lévis to St. Thomas, P.Q., and Montreal to Brockville; in 1856 Brockville to Toronto and Toronto to Stratford. Two years later the road was completed to London; in 1859 the Victoria Bridge was built, and the line extended from St. Mary’s to Sarnia; and in 1860 the eastern section carried to Rivière du Loup. That year the Grand Trunk was completed from Lake Huron to the Atlantic. From the beginning it found itself in difficulties, partly because the railway was controlled in England instead of in Canada, and partly from a variety of other causes; and the Canadian government had to come repeatedly to its relief with loans and guarantees. Nevertheless, “the Grand Trunk did Canada good service,” says O. D. Skelton, “well worth all the public aid that was given.” In the eighties the Grand Trunk absorbed a number of small lines and built extensions, to meet the competition of the Canadian Pacific. In 1895 Charles Melville Hays became general manager, and put new life into the system; in 1909 he became president, and three years later met a tragic death in the Titanic. In the next decade the Grand Trunk’s financial position became so precarious that the Canadian government, faced with the alternative of annual loans or subsidies or taking over the system, decided on the latter; the Grand Trunk in 1920 was taken over by the Dominion, and became absorbed in the Canadian National Railways in 1923. Bib.: Brown, History of Grand Trunk Railway; Lanning, Historical Sketch of the Grand Trunk Railway (in Canada: an Ency., vol. 2); Skelton, The Railway Builders; Lovett, Canada and the Grand Trunk, 1829-1924.

Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. The Grand Trunk had at different times considered various suggestions for western expansion, but nothing came of them until rapid settlement and development of farming in the prairie provinces seemed to make it imperative. In 1902 it was announced that the Grand Trunk was considering the building of a line from North Bay west to the Pacific. When they applied for government assistance, opposition developed, particularly because the projected line did not open up the undeveloped north country of Ontario and Quebec. The government proposed an alternative scheme of a line from Moncton to the Pacific, running through the heart of New Brunswick, and opening up the north country. This larger project was divided into two; the government would build the eastern half from Moncton to Winnipeg and lease it to the Grand Trunk Pacific; and the Grand Trunk would build and operate the western section with the aid of a government guarantee. In spite of bitter opposition, the agreement went through, and work upon the new transcontinental began in 1904. Both the east and west sections were completed about 1915. The Grand Trunk Pacific, however, failed to take over the eastern section, and eventually the Canadian government found it necessary to add both east and west sections to the national railway system. See National Transcontinental. Bib.: Skelton, The Railway Builders.

Grant, Alexander (1725-1813). Descended from a prominent family of Invernesshire, Scotland. In his early years served both in the army and navy. Served under Amherst on Lake Champlain in 1759. Later commanded the Fleet on the Great Lakes between Niagara and Michilimackinac. Member of Legislative Council under Simcoe. Administered the government of Upper Canada as senior member and president of the Executive Council, on death of General Hunter, 1805. Bib.: Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada; Doughty and McArthur, Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada.

Grant, Cuthbert. One of the leading traders of the North West Company in the west, in the early days. With Peter Pond on the Athabaska, and sent by him, 1786, to establish a post near mouth of Slave River; at Fort Chipewyan, 1789; at Fort Qu’Appelle, 1793; with David Thompson on the Assiniboine, 1797. Died, 1798 or 1799. Bib.: Henry-Thompson Journals, ed. by Coues Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Grant, Cuthbert. Son of foregoing. Scottish half-breed, in western fur trade. Educated at Montreal, and entered service of North West Company. Led the half-breeds in the Seven Oaks affair. Some years later settled near White Horse Plains, on the Assiniboine, and appointed Warden of the Plains by the Council of Assiniboia. Became himself a member of the Council. Bib.: Bryce, Manitoba and Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West.

Grant, George Monro (1835-1902). Born at Albion Mines, Nova Scotia. Educated at University of Glasgow. Entered Presbyterian ministry in Nova Scotia. Accompanied Sandford Fleming overland to British Columbia, 1872. Principal of Queen’s University, 1877, and built it up to the first rank among Canadian universities. He took a keen interest in public questions, and did not hesitate to express his views on public platforms. Fought resolutely against commercial union, as a discrimination against the motherland and tending to bring Canada into subjection, at first commercially and then politically, to the United States. A warm supporter of Sir John Macdonald in Confederation, in his railway policy and in other great national questions. It was of Grant the story was told that when Sir John playfully reproached him with not being a staunch political friend, he replied that he always supported him when he was right. “Ah!” retorted the old statesman, “but what I need is men who will support me when I am wrong.” Bib.: Works: Ocean to Ocean; Advantages of Imperial Federation; Our National Objects and Aims; Religions of the World in Relation to Christianity; Picturesque Canada. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Dent, Can. Por.; Grant and Hamilton Principal Grant.

Grant, Sir William (1752-1832). Commanded volunteers at siege of Quebec, 1775; attorney-general of Canada, 1776; chief-justice of Chester, 1798; solicitor-general, 1799-1801; master of the Rolls, 1801-1817. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Granville, George Leveson-Gower, second Earl (1815-1891). Entered Parliament, 1836; secretary for foreign affairs, 1851-1852, 1870-1874, 1880-1885; colonial secretary, 1868-1870 and 1886. Helped Cartier and Mcdougall to make an advantageous bargain with the Hudson’s Bay Company in connection with the transfer of Rupert’s Land to Canada. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Gray, John Hamilton (1814-1889). Born in Bermuda. Entered political life in New Brunswick in 1850, as member for St. John county, and became attorney-general in the provincial government. Took part in the negotiations leading up to Confederation, attending both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. Speaker of the Assembly, 1866. Sat in the first Dominion Parliament as member for the city of St. John. In 1872 appointed to the Supreme Court of British Columbia. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Gray, John Hamilton (1811-1887). Born in Prince Edward Island. Entered the army, 1831, and served for twenty-one years, retiring, 1852. Returning to Prince Edward Island, elected to the provincial Legislature, and became premier in 1863. The following year presided at the Charlottetown Conference, and also attended the Quebec Conference. Made a C. M. G., 1871. Sometimes confused with preceding. Bib.: Campbell, History of Prince Edward Island.

Gray, Robert (1755-1806). American captain and explorer. Made a voyage to the North-West Coast, 1787. At Nootka, Vancouver Island, 1788-1789. On his second voyage, entered the mouth of the Columbia river on May 11th, 1792. Named it after his ship. United States based their claim to the Oregon country partly on his discovery. Bib.: Bancroft, History of the North-West Coast; Laut, Vikings of the Pacific.

Great Bear Lake. In Northern Canada. Area, 11,821 square miles. Name first applied to the river which discharges the lake into the Mackenzie, on account of bears seen in the vicinity, the “great” referring to the size of the lake not of the bears. Discovered by men of the North West Company, and a post established on or near the lake about 1800. Fort Franklin built on south-west shore, 1825, where Franklin wintered with Richardson and Back. Fort Confidence built by Dease and Simpson, 1873, at eastern end of Dease Bay, on the lake. Bib.: Franklin, Second Expedition; Simpson, Narrative of Discoveries; Bell, Great Bear Lake (Geol. Survey, 1899); Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Atlas of Canada; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Great Lakes. See under names of individual lakes: Superior; Huron; Michigan; Erie; Ontario; St. Clair. Bib.: Curwood, The Great Lakes; Channing, Story of the Great Lakes; Russell, Lakes of North America.

Great Slave Lake. In Northern Canada. Area, 10,719 square miles. Known to the Indians as Athapuscow or Athapapuscow. Present name originated from Slave Indians. The Crees had driven the Dogrib Indians north and nicknamed them “Slaves.” Discovered by Samuel Hearne (q.v.), in 1771, and named by him Athapapuscow. A post built there, 1786, by Leroux and Grant of the North West Company. Three years later Alexander Mackenzie passed through the lake on his way to the mouth of the Mackenzie river. Visited later by many other explorers and fur traders, being on the route to the far north and north-west. Bib.: Hearne, Journey to Coppermine; Mackenzie, Voyages; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Atlas of Canada; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Great War. See War of 1914-1918.

Great Western Railway. Charter granted, 1834, and renewed, 1845. Absorbed by the Grand Trunk in 1882. Ran from Hamilton to the international boundary opposite Detroit. Bib.: Trout, History of Canadian Railways in Canada: An Ency., vol. 2.

Green Bay. On the west side of Lake Michigan. Generally known to the French as La Baye des Puants. First visited by Jean Nicolet in 1634; also by Radisson in 1656; by Perrot in 1668; by La Salle in the Griffon in 1679; by Du Lhut in 1688 and Lahontan the same year; by Charlevoix the historian in 1717. It was for years the scene of labour of Jesuit missionaries; of the fur trade; and on the route of travel from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi. The early commandants at the post of La Baye, on Green Bay, were Philippe d’Amours Sieur de la Morandière, and Jacques Testard Sieur de Montigny. Other posts were built later, and in time a small French settlement grew up about them. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Green, Benjamin (1713-1772). Accompanied the expedition against Louisbourg as secretary, 1745; remained there as government secretary until 1749; removed to Halifax, and appointed a member of the Executive Council of Nova Scotia. Treasurer of the province for many years. Administrator of the government, 1776. Bib.: Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Green, Francis (1742-1809). Born in Boston. Son of preceding. Obtained a commission in 40th Regiment; in 1757 joined his regiment at Halifax; and the following year took part in the siege of Louisbourg. At Quebec in 1760; and served for several years in the West Indies. In 1776 he left Boston with his children and settled in Halifax, where he became sheriff of the county of Halifax, and later Senior Judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Greenway, Thomas (1838-1909). Born in Cornwall, England. Came to Canada with his parents, 1844. Educated at the public schools of Huron county, Ontario. Engaged in business for ten years at Centralia. Defeated on two occasions for election to the House of Commons, but elected, 1875; did not offer for re-election. Removed to Manitoba, 1878, and engaged in farming. Elected to the Assembly, 1879; leader of the Liberal opposition, 1887; premier, 1888; his government defeated, 1899. Elected to the House of Commons, 1904. Appointed a member of the Dominion Railway Commission, 1898. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West; Morgan, Cel. Can.

Gregg, Milton Fowler. Lieutenant, Royal Canadian Regiment. Won the Victoria Cross for most conspicuous bravery and initiative near Cambrai, September 27th to October 1st, 1918. He captured an enemy trench and, although wounded, went back alone under terrific fire for bombs. Returning, and again wounded, he reorganized his men and led them with the greatest determination, finally clearing the enemy trenches, taking twenty-five prisoners and twelve machine-guns.

Gregory, John. Born in England. Came to Montreal, and engaged in the fur trade. Associated with A. N. McLeod, Alexander Mackenzie, Peter Pangman, and others, in opposition to the North West Company. Subsequently became a partner of the Company. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Gregory, William. Born at Manooth, Ireland. Began the study of the law at the Middle Temple, 1739. First chief-justice of Quebec, 1764-1766. He quarrelled with Governor Murray over the Walker affair and was recalled. Little is known of his life before or after his term of office in Canada. F. J. Audet has unearthed the fact that he was imprisoned for debt in London in 1760 and again in 1769. He defended in 1767 Daniel Disnay, who had been implicated in the Walker case. In 1775 he seems to have been a judge of the Superior Court of South Carolina. Bib.: Audet, Les juges en chef de la province de Québec (Revue du Droit, 1925).

Grenfell, Wilfrid Thomason (1865-). Born at Parkgate, Cheshire, England. Educated at Marlborough College, Oxford. Studied medicine, and in 1890 accepted the office of superintendent of the Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen. Sailed for Labrador in 1892, and has made this inhospitable coast the scene of his life’s work, founding mission hospitals, a series of cooperative stores, an orphanage, and various industrial schemes for the benefit of the white and native inhabitants of Labrador. C.M.G 1907; C.V.O. 1911., Bib.: Labrador: the Country and the People; Vikings of To-day; The Harvest of the Sea; Off the Rocks; Down North on the Labrador. For biog., see Waldo, Grenfell: Knight Errant of the North.

Grenville, William Wyndham, Baron (1759-1834). Entered Parliament, 1782; paymaster-general, 1783; colonial secretary, 1789. Had very definite views on colonial government. Sent Dorchester draft of a bill for the government of Quebec designed to adapt the British model to Canadian conditions. The Canada Act as finally adopted took somewhat different lines. Created Baron Grenville, 1790; secretary for foreign affairs, 1791; first lord of the treasury, 1806. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Grey, Henry George, third Earl (1802-1894). Secretary for the colonies, 1830-1833; secretary for war, 1835-1841; succeeded to the earldom, 1845; again secretary for the colonies, 1846-1852. He fully appreciated the unwise policy of Metcalfe in turning the parliamentary opposition from the governor’s advisers to the governor himself. When Elgin offered his resignation in connection with the Rebellion Losses Bill, he refused to accept it, holding very properly that it would merely encourage the extremists who had been responsible for the riots. His enlightened views on responsible government in the colonies were expressed in despatches to Elgin, Harvey of Nova Scotia, and other governors. “It is,” he wrote Harvey, “neither possible nor desirable to carry on the government of any of the British provinces in North America in opposition to the opinion of the inhabitants.” Bib.: The Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell’s Administration; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Grey, Albert Henry George Grey, fourth Earl (1851-1917). Born Howick, England. Educated at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of British House of Commons, 1880-1886; administrator of Rhodesia, 1896-1897; director of British South Africa Company, 1898-1904. Succeeded Lord Minto as governor-general of Canada, 1904-1911. During his term of office, the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created, the Universities of Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan founded, the tercentenary of the birth of Quebec celebrated, the Waterways treaty signed at Washington, and the International Joint Commission created, new trade agreements with Germany, Belgium, Holland and Italy, and the Imperial Conference in London. Bib.: Hubert Hervey: a Memoir; Begbie, Albert Fourth Earl Grey; Dawson, Earl Grey’s Speeches in Canada. For biog., see Who’s Who.

Grey, Sir Charles Edward (1785-1865). Educated at Oxford University; called to the bar, 1811; commissioner in bankruptcy, 1817; judge of the Supreme Court of Madras, 1820; knighted, 1820; sent to Canada as one of three commissioners to investigate causes of prevailing discontent, 1835; elected to the House of Commons, 1838; governor of the Barbadoes, 1841-1846; governor of Jamaica, 1847-1853. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Griffon. Vessel built by La Salle in 1679 on the Niagara river above the falls. It was the first sailing ship on the upper lakes. Sailed for Lake Michigan and was lost on the return voyage. Bib.: Severance, An old Frontier of France.

Groseilliers. See Chouart.

Guelph. A city of western Ontario, situated on the Speed River, in the county of Wellington. Founded by John Galt (q.v.), 1827, and named by him after the family name of the Royal House of Brunswick. Incorporated as a city, 1879. Bib.: Lizars, Days of the Canada Company.

Guelph Agricultural College. Established, 1874, by the Ontario government. An experimental farm is connected with the college. Students are instructed in scientific methods of agriculture in all its branches. A great deal of practical instructive work is also done with the farmers of the province. See also Agriculture.

Gugy, Conrad (1730-1786). Born at the Hague; son of a Swiss officer in the Dutch service. Educated for the engineers; disposed of his commission and settled in Quebec. Subsequently secretary to Sir Frederick Haldimand and a member of the Legislative and Executive Councils. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Gugy, Conrad Augustus. Educated at Cornwall under John Strachan. Served for a time in the army; afterwards studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada. Elected a member of the Assembly. Led the troops at the assault of St. Eustache in the Rebellion of 1837-1838. Subsequently adjutant-general and commissioner of police. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Guienne Regiment. Sent out to Canada in 1755 with other regiments under Baron Dieskau. Saw service on Lake Champlain, at Fort Frontenac, in the capture of Oswego, on the Plains of Abraham, and in the battle of Ste. Foy. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Wood, The Fight for Canada; Bradley, Fight with France.

Guignas, Michel (1681-1752). Entered the Jesuit order in 1702. Came to Canada in 1716. and was sent to the Ottawa mission at Michilimackinac. In 1727 he was sent to take charge of the mission to the Sioux. Captured by Indians in 1728. Again at the Sioux post, 1732-1737. Returned to Quebec in 1740, and died there. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

Guilford, Frederick North, second Earl of (1732-1792). Entered Parliament, 1754; chancellor of the exchequer, 1767; premier, 1770; resigned in 1783. Helped to frame the Quebec Act. Kennedy in his Constitution of Canada has noted the anomaly of a reactionary like North defending a bill that contained such unusually generous provisions to the French Canadians, while at the same time he or his government were “goading their own flesh and blood into the shambles of civil war.” Proposed a military settlement in the Eastern Townships. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Gunn, Donald (1797-1878). Born in Falkirk, Scotland. Entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1813. Left the service, 1823, but continued to reside in the Red River Settlement. Appointed one of the judges of the Court of Petty Sessions, and for a time president of the Court. Appointed a member of the Legislative Council of Manitoba, 1870. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West.

Guyard, Marie. See Marie de l’Incarnation.

Gzowski, Sir Casimir Stanislaus. Born in St. Petersburg in 1813. He studied military engineering, was given a commission, but on the breaking out of the Polish revolution he joined his countrymen, fought through the war, surrendered with other officers, and was exiled to the United States. He arrived at New York in 1833, studied law at Pittsburg and was admitted to the bar. In 1841 he moved to Toronto, and between that date and 1853 filled various engineering positions in the government service. Later formed a partnership with Sir Alexander Galt, L. H. Holton and Sir David Macpherson for the construction of the Grand Trunk between Toronto and Sarnia, and other large contracts. Prepared reports for the government on water communications, the enlargement of the Welland Canal, and the Baie Verte canal scheme. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Habeas Corpus. The British Act was passed in 1679, compelling judges to grant a writ of habeas corpus when applied for, the writ being based upon the 29th Section of Magna Charta which gives protection against arbitrary imprisonment. Its application to Canada was a bone of contention at the time of the passage of the Quebec Act. In the instructions to Carleton it is recommended for adoption by the Legislature of the province. Haldimand crushed every movement in its favour. Du Calvet demanded it in 1784. It was subsequently made a part of the law of Canada. Bib.: Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents relating to Canada; Dict. Eng. Hist.; Kennedy, Constitution of Canada.

Habitants. The farmers of Quebec. They were and are more independent than the corresponding class in France. Montcalm compared them to the small gentry of the old land. Visitors of different periods have borne uniform tribute to their hospitality, courtesy, kindliness and moral qualities. Bib.: Greenough, Canadian Folk-Life; Fréchette, Christmas in French Canada; Burpee, Canadian Life in Town and Country; Fiske, New France and New England; Lambert, Travels in Canada; Rivard, Chez Nous; Hémon, Maria Chapdelaine; De Gaspé, Les Anciens Canadiens.

Habitation de Québec. The first building in Quebec. Erected by Champlain, 1608. Stood about where the Church of Notre Dame des Victoires stands to-day. An illustration of the Habitation is in Champlain’s Voyages. See also Chateau St. Louis. Bib.: Champlain, Voyages; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Hagarty, Sir John Hawkins (1816-1900). Born in Dublin. Educated at Trinity College there. Came to Canada, 1834. Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1840. Appointed puisne judge of the Court of Common Pleas, 1856; transferred to the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1862; appointed chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas, 1868; chief-justice of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1878; chief-justice of Ontario, 1884. Served as administrator of the province, 1882. Retired from the bench, 1897. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men.

Hagerman, Christopher Alexander (1792-1847). Born in Adolphustown, Ontario. Educated at Kingston; studied law and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1815. Served during the War of 1812-1814 with the militia, being for a time aide-de-camp to the governor-general. Collector of customs at Kingston, and member of the Executive Council, 1815. Elected a member of the Assembly, 1819. Appointed temporarily judge of the King’s Bench, 1828; solicitor-general, 1829. Removed from office by the colonial secretary on the representations of William Lyon Mackenzie, with whom his relations had been very far from friendly. Subsequently restored to office. Appointed attorney-general, 1837, and as such opposed the union of Upper and Lower Canada; puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1840. Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion and Last Forty Years; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Haida Indians. Popular name for the Skittagetan of Queen Charlotte Islands and the south end of Prince of Wales Island, where they have lived for many generations. Earliest account by Juan Perez, 1774. Bodega and Maurelle visited them the next year. La Perouse, Dixon, Vancouver, and other captains visited them from time to time. Noted as the most skilful carvers of totem poles, etc., painters and canoe and house builders of the tribes of the North-West Coast. Bib.: Harrison, Ancient Warriors of the North Pacific; Dawson, Queen Charlotte Islands; Dixon, Voyage around the World; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

Haldimand, Sir Frederick (1718-1791). Born in Switzerland. Saw service with the Prussian army as a youth, and was present at the battle of Mollwitz. Also with the Swiss Guards in the Netherlands. He was now a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1754 accepted a commission in the Royal American regiment for service in America. He commanded the second battalion, stationed at Philadelphia. Sent to Albany and later to the southern colonies to recruit men. In 1758 he exchanged to the fourth battalion, and joined the expedition against Canada under Abercromby, that unfortunate expedition that ended so ingloriously. Abercromby having been recalled, Amherst sent Haldimand the following summer to rebuild Oswego which Montcalm had destroyed in 1756. Here he was attacked by the French under La Corne de St. Luc, but forced them to retreat. In 1760 he accompanied Amherst and the army down the St. Lawrence to Montreal, and witnessed the final capitulation of Canada, he himself being sent in to take possession of the city. Here he remained for nearly two years under General Gage. In 1762 succeeded Burton as governor of Three Rivers, Burton having been ordered to join his regiment in the West Indies. The same year he was promoted to colonel, and became naturalized as a British subject. While at Three Rivers he reopened the St. Maurice Forges. In 1763 Burton resumed his governorship, and Haldimand returned to Montreal, but before the close of the year was back in command at Three Rivers, Burton having succeeded Gage as governor of Montreal; he busied himself among other things in suppressing irregular trading with the Indians. In 1767 he succeeded Bouquet as military commander in Florida, which at that time extended to the Mississippi. Six years later, with the rank of major-general, he succeeded Gage in the command at New York. While he was there the famous “tea party” took place in Boston. The subsequent closing of the port of Boston was against his prudent advice. In New York he needed all his tact to keep on friendly terms with Governor Tryon, as had been the case with Governor Johnstone in Florida. In 1775 he was recalled, and given the appointment of inspector-general of forces in the West Indies. He was at the same time raised to the rank of general in America and lieutenant-general in the army. In 1778 he succeeded Carleton as governor-general of Canada. As his biographer has said, Haldimand missed the dramatic moments in the Canadian history of his period. It was his destiny to play a less romantic part than Wolfe or Carleton, to defend the heritage they had won, under difficult conditions and with a very inadequate force. He must keep a watchful eye upon the new republic to the south, without much faith in the loyalty of either the French or the Indian tribes. Nevertheless, his attitude toward both was tactful and just. One of his minor problems was the feeding and housing of several thousand Loyalist refugees; another to keep the peace between rival military officers in his own service. To add to his difficulties he was surrounded by volunteer spies who misrepresented all his acts to the colonial minister. In adopting the necessary measures of civil government he had little effective help from his unwieldy council. A foe to monopolies of every description, he had every selfish trader barking at his heels. Among his practical measures for both war and peace were the strengthening of the fortifications at Quebec, and the making of canals on the upper St. Lawrence at Coteau and the Cascades; the taking of a census, supplying Canadian timber to the navy, and the founding of the first Canadian public library, at Quebec. In 1784 he returned to England, having spent six years in Canada, very much to the advantage of the colony. He died in his beloved Switzerland. It has been said of him, “a pessimist concerning the future of Canada, he yet accomplished more for the firm establishment of that future than any one of her optimistic governors.... A disaffected province, a weak colonial minister, called for a strong man, able to use strong measures on his own responsibility. Indian ferocity needed a restraining hand, but Indian rights must be respected. The Vermont negotiations would have belittled Great Britain, if not conducted with honour and dignity, while the homeless Loyalists appealed to sympathy that had to be tempered with the nicest judgment. The manner in which Haldimand fulfilled all these requirements entitles him to a greater meed of imperial gratitude than he has yet received, and to a far higher place than has yet been accorded him among the makers of Canada.” Bib.: Kingsford, History of Canada; Lucas, History of Canada, 1763-1812; Bradley, The Making of Canada; McIlwraith, Sir Frederick Haldimand.

Half-breeds. Offspring of whites and Indians, almost invariably a white father and an Indian mother. Where the father was French, the children were also known as Métis or Bois Brûlés. It was the practice in the fur trade, where white women, particularly in the earlier years, were almost unknown, for the traders to take wives from among the Indian women. These marriages were not solemnized and were seldom considered binding. When the trader finally retired from the western fur country and returned to the civilized east, he usually left his Indian wife and half-breed children behind him, making some provision for their maintenance, and often contracting a new marriage with a white woman in the east. Daniel Williams Harmon, in his Journal, says quite frankly that he has decided to follow in this respect the custom of the country. When the time came to leave the Indian country, he found, however, that he had become too attached to his wife and children to leave them behind, and took them back with him to Lower Canada. The French half-breeds were excellent canoemen and woodsmen, and invaluable in the fur trade. They have been condemned by David Thompson, Ross Cox, and other leaders of the fur trade, as immoral, irresponsible and gluttonous, charges from which Archbishop Taché warmly defends them in his Sketch of the North-West of America. Sir John Richardson in his Arctic Searching Expedition compares the French half-breed unfavourably with the Scotch half-breed. It is only fair to say that the critics of the half-breed freely admit his cheerfulness under extremely depressing circumstances, his skill and daring in navigation, and his readiness when necessity arises to go hungry without grumbling. Bib.: Cox, Adventures on the Columbia River; Thompson, Narrative; Ross, Fur Traders of the Far West.

Haliburton, Arthur Lawrence, Baron (1832-1907). Son of Thomas Chandler Haliburton. Born at Windsor, Nova Scotia, and educated at King’s College, Windsor, he studied law and was called to the bar in 1858. Entered the commissariat service of the British army, 1855, and became deputy assistant commissary-general, 1859. In 1870 he was transferred to the war office as assistant director of supplies and transport, and in 1878 succeeded Sir W. H. Drake as director. He became assistant under-secretary of state for war in 1888 and permanent under-secretary for war in 1895. Made a G. C. B., 1897. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Atlay, Memoirs of Lord Haliburton.

Haliburton, Robert Grant (1831-1901). Son of Thomas Chandler Haliburton. Born at Windsor, Nova Scotia; educated at King’s College, Windsor. Studied law, and called to the bar, 1853. In 1875 one of the commissioners for the settlement of the land question in Prince Edward Island. Founded the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science. Went to London in 1871, and bought the St. James Magazine, changing the title to United Empire Review. Returned to Canada, 1876. In 1881 gave up his law practice owing to ill health, and devoted his energies to travel and scientific studies in tropical countries. In 1887-1888 discovered a pigmy race in north Africa, and carried out exhaustive researches in this and other branches of science. Bib.: Confederation or Annexation; The Past and Future of Nova Scotia; The Future and the Resources of Canada. For list of his numerous scientific papers, see Morgan, Can. Men, 1898.

Haliburton, Thomas Chandler (1796-1865). Humourist, historian, jurist and statesman. Born at Windsor, Nova Scotia. Educated at the Grammar School and at King’s College there, 1815. Called to the bar, 1820, and practised for a time at Annapolis. Represented the county of Annapolis in the Nova Scotia Legislature, 1826-1829, and in 1829 appointed district judge of the Court of Common Pleas, succeeding his father. In 1841 transferred to the Supreme Court. Resigned in 1856, and removed to England, where, three years later, entered Parliament as member for Launceston. In Parliament he acted as the representative rather of British North America than of his English constituency, and never missed an opportunity of putting forward the colonial point of view. Oxford gave him the honorary degree of D. C. L. in 1858. Died at his home, Gordon House, on the Thames. In their earlier years he and Joseph Howe had been warm friends, but in later years they drew apart, Howe developing into a strong democrat and Haliburton a staunch tory. Both, however, were devoted to their native province, and anxious to further its welfare in every possible way. Haliburton and Howe had many points in common intellectually, though the former had unquestionably more originality, and more nearly approached the rank of genius than any other Canadian. Bib.: Works: An Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia; The Clockmaker, or the Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville; Bubbles of Canada; Reply to the Report of the Earl of Durham; Letter-bag of the Great Western, or Life in a Steamer; Attaché, or Sam Slick in England; Old Judge, or Life in a Colony; English in America; Traits of American Humour; Wise Saws and Modern Instances; Americans at Home; Nature and Human Nature; Address on the Present Condition, Resources, and Prospects of British North America; Season Ticket. For selections and criticism see: Chittick, Thomas Chandler Haliburton; Baker, Sam Slick; Wallace, Selections from Sam Slick; Burpee, Fragments of Haliburton; Baker, History of English Canadian Literature; MacMechan, Headwaters of Canadian Literature. Brief biographies are found in Dict. Nat. Biog.; Morgan, Bib. Can.; Allibone, Dict. Eng. Lit.; Calnek and Savery, History of the County of Annapolis; Chasles, Études sur Littérature des Anglo-Américains; Crofton, Haliburton: a Centenary Chaplet. See also last-mentioned volume for a bibliography of the various editions of his works and a list of articles, in books and magazines, on the man and his works; also A. H. O’Brien’s exhaustive bibliography in R. S. C., Trans., 1909.

Halifax. A seaport, and the capital of Nova Scotia; founded in 1749 and named after the Earl of Halifax, then president of the Board of Trade. The first settlers were brought out from England in that year by Governor Cornwallis, in thirteen transports; the following year it was made the capital of the province (then including New Brunswick), instead of Annapolis; in 1842 incorporated as a city; became with its fortifications, observatory stations, harbour mines, etc., one of the fortresses of the Empire, and the chief British naval station in North America; garrisoned by Imperial troops until 1905 when they were withdrawn and replaced by a Canadian garrison. Scene of a disastrous explosion on December 17th, 1917. It has been the home of such great Canadians as Howe and Haliburton, Johnstone and Tupper, Cunard and Thompson. Bib.: MacMechan, Halifax in Books, a collection of pen-pictures of Halifax and its people by many writers from Edmund Burke to Rudyard Kipling; Eaton, Chapters in the History of Halifax; Tom Moore, Letters; Moorsom, Letters from Nova Scotia; Sleigh, Pine Forests; Marryat, Frank Mildmay; Dickens, American Notes; Johnston, Notes on North America; Cozzens, Acadia; Sladen, On the Cars and Off; Haliburton, Nova Scotia; Thomas B. Akins, History of Halifax (Nova Scotia Hist. Soc. Trans. vol. 8); Mackay, Sketch of City of Halifax, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 5; Regan, Sketches and Traditions of the North-West Arm; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Halifax Award. The treaty of Washington having provided for a commission to settle the compensation due Canada by the United States for the use of her fisheries, in 1877 the United States appointed E. H. Kellogg, Canada appointed Sir Alexander Galt, and these two agreed upon M. Delfosse, Belgian minister to Washington, as a third. The commission met at Halifax, and after long and careful deliberation, decided that Canada should be paid $5,500,000, the American commissioner dissenting. The award was paid, after considerable delay. See Washington, Treaty of. Bib.: Record of the Proceedings of the Halifax Fisheries Commission, 1877.

Hall, Frederick William. Company-sergeant-major 8th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Awarded posthumous Victoria Cross. On April 24th, 1915, near Ypres, when a wounded man called for help, he made two attempts to reach him in face of a very heavy enfilade fire. In the act of lifting up the wounded man to bring him in, he fell mortally wounded in the head.

Halliburton, Sir Brenton (1773-1860). Born in Rhode Island. Son of following. Studied law and after some years’ practice elevated to the bench, subsequently becoming chief-justice (1833-1860). Knighted, 1859. He presided at the trial of Joseph Howe for libel in 1835. In 1840 his son, John Croke Halliburton, challenged Howe to a duel because of supposed insulting references to his father. The duel took place, but neither of the antagonists was injured. Bib.: Longley, Joseph Howe; Hill, Memoir of Sir Brenton Halliburton; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Halliburton, John (1739-1808). United Empire Loyalist. Formerly of Rhode Island. A surgeon in the British navy during the Revolution. Emigrated to Halifax, and practiced medicine there. A member of the Council. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Haly, Sir William O’Grady (1811-1878). Entered the army, 1828. Served with distinction in the Crimea and in India. Created K. C. B., 1855. Appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America, 1873. Acted as administrator of the government of Canada during the absence of Lord Dufferin, 1875. Attained the rank of general, 1877. Died in Halifax.

Hamilton. City of Ontario, on Burlington Bay, west end of Lake Ontario. Laid out and settled, 1813, by George Hamilton, from whom it takes its name. Incorporated as a city, 1846. Bib.: Lovell, Gazetteer; Gardiner, Nothing but Names.

Hamilton, Charles (1834-1919). Born Hawkesbury, Ontario. Educated at Oxford. Became bishop of Niagara (Church of England), 1885-1896; bishop of Ottawa, 1896-1909; archbishop of Ottawa, 1909; metropolitan of Canada, 1909. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Hamilton, Henry. Of Irish descent, he entered the army in 1754, and was commissioned lieutenant of the 15th Regiment, 1756. Served under Amherst at Louisbourg, and under Wolfe at Quebec, and in the West Indies, 1761-1763. Lieutenant-governor of Detroit, 1775-1779; occupied Vincennes, on the Wabash, 1779, was captured there by the Americans, 1779, and imprisoned. Retired from the army, 1783; lieutenant-governor of Quebec, and president of the Legislative Council, 1784-1785, and administrator during the absence of Haldimand. Under his administration provision for trial by jury in civil cases was incorporated in the ordinance for regulating the procedure in courts. Recalled on Haldimand’s representations, having incurred his enmity by his advocacy of the extension of British institutions in Canada. Governor of Bermuda, 1790-1794; and of Dominica, 1794-1796. Died there in 1796. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents of Canada; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Hamilton, John (1801-1882). Born in Queenston, Ontario. Removed to Kingston, 1840. Throughout his life largely interested in inland navigation, and the first to introduce iron vessels on Canadian waters. Sat in the Legislative Council of Upper Canada, 1831-1841; in the Legislative Council of Canada, 1841-1867; and in the Senate from 1867 until his death. On the completion of his fiftieth year of continuous service in the Upper Chamber, presented with an address of congratulation by his fellow-senators. Bib.: Can. Parl. Companion.

Hamilton, Pierce Stevens (1826-1893). Studied law and called to the Nova Scotia bar, 1851. Entered journalism, and edited Acadian Recorder, 1853-1861. Appointed chief commissioner of mines for Nova Scotia. An early advocate of Confederation. Bib.: Works: Union of the Colonies of British North America; Feast of Ste. Anne and other Poems.

Hamilton, Robert. Entertained the Duke of Kent at his house at Queenston in 1792. Member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada, 1793. Simcoe accused him of republicanism. Visited London in 1795 and obtained legal advice as to certain moot points in the land legislation of the young colony. Appointed, 1794, lieutenant of the county of Lincoln. Bib.: Scott, John Graves Simcoe.

Hanbury, David T. English traveller and explorer. In 1902 he carried out an ambitious journey through the Barren Grounds of Northern Canada, from Great Slave lake to the Thelon river, down that stream, and north overland to Backs river and the Arctic coast west of Adelaide peninsula. He explored Kent peninsula, and is credited with the discovery of the long narrow inlet that almost converts the peninsula into an island. In the published narrative of his travels he throws a good deal of light on the manners and customs of the Eskimo, and learned from them among other things that the tragic story of the massacre of their countrymen by Hearne’s Chipewyan guides in 1771 had been passed down from generation to generation. Bib.: Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada.

Handy, Henry S. Commanded a number of American sympathizers, during the Rebellion of 1837-1838 in Upper Canada. The movement came to nothing, and never had any serious foundation. Handy took possession of Sugar Island, in the Detroit river, but was forced by lack of supplies to bring his men back to Detroit. Several months later he made another attempt in Michigan, but the conspiracy again collapsed without having done any damage, except to American prestige. The conduct of the United States federal authorities seems to have been irreproachable, but that cannot be said of the people and officials of Michigan, who openly or secretly gave countenance to a movement to invade a friendly neighbouring country. Bib.: Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion; Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Hanington, Daniel (1804-1889). Sat for over half a century in one or other of the branches of the New Brunswick Legislature. Elected to Assembly, 1834, for Westmoreland, which he represented up to 1862. A member of the Executive Council under Sir Edmund Head; Speaker of the Assembly, 1854; appointed to the Legislative Council, 1867, and president of that body, 1883-1886. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Hanington, Daniel Lionel (1835-1909). Born at Shediac, New Brunswick. Called to the bar, 1861; in 1870 entered the New Brunswick Assembly, representing Westmoreland until 1874; and reëlected, 1878; member of the Executive Council, 1878; premier of the province, 1882; resigned, 1883. In 1892 appointed a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Hanna, James. Made a voyage to the North-West Coast in 1785. Said to have been the first voyage for sea-otter skins. Purchased from the Indians for trinkets, they were sold in China at enormous prices. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Hanna, Michael (1821-1882). Born in Ireland. Came to Canada, 1839, and completed his studies at St. Mary’s College. Ordained to the priesthood, 1845. Held various charges in Nova Scotia. Subsequently became vicar-general of the diocese of Halifax; and archbishop, 1877. Died in Halifax.

Hanna, Robert. Company-sergeant-major, 29th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Won the Victoria Cross by conspicuous bravery at Lens, August 21st, 1917. Under heavy machine-gun and rifle fire he led a party of men against a strong enemy position heavily protected by wire, personally disposing of four men, capturing the position and silencing the machine-gun.

Hannay, James (1842-1910). Historian. Born at Richibucto, New Brunswick. Studied law and called to the bar, 1867. He had also engaged in journalism, and in 1867 was appointed official reporter of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick. Assistant editor of St. John Daily Telegraph, 1872-1883. Subsequently connected with the Montreal Herald and Brooklyn Eagle. In 1888 returned to St. John as chief editor of the Daily Telegraph. Contributed historical ballads and essays to Stewart’s Quarterly and other periodicals. Bib.: History of Acadia; Wilmot, Tilley; Life and Times of Sir Leonard Tilley; History of the War of 1812; History of New Brunswick. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men.

Hardy, Arthur Sturgis (1837-1899). Born at Mount Pleasant, Ontario. Studied law, and called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1865; practised his profession at Brantford; Q. C., 1876. Elected to the Ontario Legislature, 1873; provincial secretary, 1877; commissioner of crown lands, 1889; premier, 1896. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Biggar, Sir Oliver Mowat.

Hargrave, James J. Chief factor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In charge of York Factory for many years, then moved to Red River. Made chief trader, 1833, and chief factor, 1844. An authority on the Red River colony and all that pertained to it. Corresponded with Sir George Simpson. Bib.: Red River; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Harmon, Daniel Williams. Born in Vermont. Entered service of North West Company, 1800, at Montreal, and left immediately for the western fur country. Returned to the east in 1819, bringing with him his Journals, covering this period, which were edited by Daniel Haskel, of Burlington, Vt., and published at that place in 1820; reprinted in New York, with a brief introduction, 1903. Returned to the West, and remained there several years, finally settling with his native wife and family on the shores of Lake Champlain. One of his daughters conducted a private school in Ottawa for many years. The original manuscript of his Journals turned up a few years ago in New York, and a photostat copy is now in the Public Archives at Ottawa. Bib.: Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America. For biog., see Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Harrison, Robert Alexander (1833-1878). Educated at Upper Canada College. Studied law, and appointed to Crown Law department of Upper Canada, 1854. Retired, 1859, and practised in Toronto. Member for Toronto in first Dominion Parliament, 1867-1872. Chief-justice of the Court of Queen’s Bench, Ontario, 1875-1878. One of the arbitrators in Ontario boundary dispute, 1878. Author of many legal works; and edited Poker, a humorous paper, 1859-1860. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Harrison, Samuel Bealey. Appointed by Sydenham provincial secretary for Upper Canada, 1841. Described as a Moderate Liberal. Brought down resolutions on responsible government. Baldwin had confidence in his judgment and sound common sense. Constitutional Society of Orillia asked for his dismissal as an extreme Reformer. In 1843 resigned as provincial secretary as a protest against the removal of the capital from Kingston to Montreal. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

Harvey, Frederick Maurice Watson. Lieutenant, Strathcona’s Horse, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. On March 27th, 1917, at Guyencourt, when an attack by his regiment was being held up by enemy machine-gun fire at close range from a wired trench, he rushed forward alone, jumped the wire, shot the machine-gunner and captured the gun.

Harvey, Sir John (1778-1852). Entered the British army, and saw active service in Holland, France, at the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and Egypt. In 1812 deputy adjutant-general of the army in Canada, and defeated the American generals Chandler and Winder at Stoney Creek. Took part in the battles of Lundy’s Lane, Fort Erie, and Crysler’s Farm. In 1815 aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, and fought at Waterloo. In 1837-1841 governor of New Brunswick; governor and commander-in-chief of Newfoundland, 1841-1846; and governor of Nova Scotia, 1846-1852. He held broad views on the subject of responsible government. Corresponded with Lord Grey in regard to the Intercolonial Railway, in which project he took a deep interest. Was instrumental in bringing about a peaceful solution of the dangerous controversy between Maine and New Brunswick known as the Aroostook War. Buried at Halifax. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Lucas, Canadian War of 1812; Hannay, History of New Brunswick; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Haultain, Sir Frederick William Gordon (1857-). Born in Woolwich, England. Educated at Montreal High School, Peterborough Collegiate Institute, and the University of Toronto. Called to the bar of Ontario, 1882; removed to the North-West Territories and settled at Fort McLeod, 1884. Elected to the North-West Council, 1887, and to the first Territorial Assembly, 1888. Member of the Advisory Council, 1888; Territorial premier, 1897; held office until the formation of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1906. Chief-justice of Saskatchewan, 1912. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West; Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Haviland, T. H. (1822-1895). Born at Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Studied law and called to the bar of Prince Edward Island, 1846; elected to the Assembly for Georgetown the same year; represented Prince Edward Island at the Quebec Conference; member of the Legislative Council, 1870; colonial secretary in the provincial government, 1859-1862, 1866-1867, 1870-1872; solicitor-general, 1865; Speaker of the Assembly, 1863-1864; provincial secretary, 1873-1876; called to the Senate, 1873; lieutenant-governor of Prince Edward Island, (1879-1884). Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.

Hayes Route. The main route of the fur traders, from Hudson Bay to Lake Winnipeg and the interior. It was adopted at a very early date, the more obvious route by way of Nelson river having proved impracticable. The Hayes route runs up Hayes river to Oxford Lake, and thence by a series of small lakes and rivers over the height of land and down the Echimamish river to Little Playgreen Lake, and Lake Winnipeg. York Factory stands at the Hudson Bay end of the route, and Norway House at the entrance to Lake Winnipeg. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Hays, Charles Melville (1856-1912). Served in various capacities in connection with several American railway companies. In 1889 general manager of the Wabash Railway and in 1894 president. Two years later became general manager of the Grand Trunk. Resigned, 1901, to become president of the Southern Pacific. Returned to the Grand Trunk the same year as second vice-president and general manager; president, 1909. Largely responsible for the expansion of the Grand Trunk, and the initiation of the transcontinental railway project. President Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, 1905. Drowned in the Titanic disaster. Bib.: Skelton, The Railway Builders; Morgan, Can. Men.

Hazen, Sir John Douglas (1860-). Born in Oromocto, New Brunswick. Educated at the University of New Brunswick; studied law and called to the bar of New Brunswick, 1883. Alderman of Fredericton and mayor for two years. Elected to the House of Commons for St. John city and county, 1891; but defeated, 1896. Elected to the New Brunswick Assembly for Sunbury, 1899; chosen leader of the opposition in the Assembly; premier and attorney-general, 1908. Elected to House of Commons for St. John, 1911; and became minister of marine and fisheries same year. In 1916 attended Imperial War Conference. Appointed, 1917, chief-justice of the Appeal Division of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick and judge of the Chancery division of the same court. K. C. M. G., 1918. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Hazen, Moses. Born in New England. United Empire Loyalist. Came to Canada after the close of the Revolutionary War, as a lieutenant in the 44th Regiment; became a justice of the peace; and, with Gabriel Christie, secured a seigniory on the Richelieu river.

Hazen, Robert Leonard (1806-1874). Born in St. John, New Brunswick. Studied law and called to the bar, 1832; sat for St. John in New Brunswick Assembly, 1837-1848; in Legislative Council, 1848-1867; member of Executive Council without portfolio, 1844-1854, and again, 1856-1857; called to the Senate, 1867; judge of Vice-Admiralty Court of New Brunswick, 1846-1874. A reactionary in the matter of responsible government. Bib.: Can. Parl. Comp., 1873; Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Head, Sir Edmund Walker (1805-1868). His grandfather, the first baronet, was a United Empire Loyalist, whose estates were confiscated. Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, 1830-1837; lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, 1847; governor-general of Canada, 1854-1861. He is credited with having suggested Ottawa to the Queen as the capital of Canada. His term of office was one full of political interest and significance, the eve of Confederation. He was, in the opinion of Lord Elgin, his predecessor, “a gentleman of the highest character, the greatest ability, and the most varied accomplishments and attainments.” On the other hand the biographer of George Brown describes him as a reactionary. Afterwards appointed a civil service commissioner, and elected governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Lewis, George Brown.

Head, Sir Francis Bond (1793-1875). Served in the Royal Engineers at Waterloo. Travelled in South America, 1825-1826. Lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 1835-1837. He was governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 1862-1868. Made privy councillor, 1867. In Upper Canada his sympathies were with the so-called Family Compact rather than with the Reformers. His views on executive responsibility were frankly stated. He maintained that “responsibility to the people, who are already represented in the House of Assembly, is unconstitutional,” and that it was the duty of the Council to serve the governor, not the people. In this attitude he was supported by the colonial minister, Lord Glenelg. Head professed a desire to remedy all real grievances, while maintaining the constitution inviolate. In 1836 he called Baldwin, Dunn, and Rolph to his Council, but these with the three older Councillors resigned in a body when they found that the governor proposed to consult them only when he should think fit. From this time his relations with the Assembly and the popular party grew steadily worse. He dissolved the House, and in the succeeding election managed to secure a majority favourable to his own views of government. “The elections,” says Durham, “were, in a number of instances, carried on by the unscrupulous exercise of the influence of the government, and by a display of violence on the part of the Tories, who were emboldened by the countenance afforded to them by the government.” And Durham holds him responsible for the rebellion that broke out in 1837. “It certainly appeared too much as if the rebellion had been purposely invited by the government, and the unfortunate men who took part in it deliberately drawn into a trap by those who subsequently inflicted so severe a punishment on them for their error.” He was a man of considerable literary ability, but hardly a success as a governor of Upper Canada. Bib.: Works: Narrative; The Emigrant; Journeys in the Pampas and Andes; Life of Bruce, the Traveller; Life of Burgoyne. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada and Rebellion of 1837; Dent, Can. Por. and Upper Canadian Rebellion; Lizars, Humours of ’37; FitzGibbon, A Veteran of 1812; Robinson, Sir John Beverley Robinson; Ryerson, Story of My Life; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Durham, Report; Lord Glenelg’s Despatches to Sir F. B. Head, London, 1839; Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Hearne, Samuel (1745-1792). Came to Fort Prince of Wales on the Hudson’s Bay Company’s ship Prince Rupert. Under instructions from the Company, and after two abortive attempts, set forth in December, 1770, on his memorable journey to the mouth of the Coppermine river, which he reached in July of the following year. Returning by way of Great Slave Lake, arrived at Fort Prince of Wales in June, 1772. Of much of the country travelled over in his journey we know nothing more to-day than is to be gathered from his narrative. Two years later sent to the Saskatchewan, where he built Cumberland House. On his return in 1775, he was appointed governor of Fort Prince of Wales, and was still in charge when the fort was captured by La Perouse in 1782. Brief accounts of his journey were published after his return from the Coppermine, and some of his statements severely criticised by Alexander Dalrymple. The complete account of the expedition did not appear until three years after his death. Bib.: Works: Journey from Prince of Wales Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean, etc., 1769-1772 (Lond., 1795). New ed., edited by J. B. Tyrrell, Champlain Soc., 1910; French trans. by M. Lallemant in 2 vols. (Paris, 1799). Also, abridged in Mavor’s collection of Voyages, xxiv, 1-66. Brief accounts of Hearne and his explorations will be found in Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Willson, Great Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Leacock, Adventurers of the Far North.

Heavysege, Charles (1816-1876). Born in Liverpool, England. Came to Canada, 1853. Settled in Montreal, and engaged in his trade of cabinet-making. Afterwards connected with the staff of the Witness. Author of a number of dramas, the most remarkable of which was Saul. Bib.: For his works, see James, Bibliography of Canadian Poetry. For biog., see Burpee, Charles Heavysege (R. S. C., 1901); Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; MacMurchy, Canadian Literature.

Hébert, Anne. Eldest daughter of Louis Hébert, Quebec; married to Stephen Jonquest in the autumn of 1617, Father Le Caron officiating. This was the first marriage in New France. Died, 1619. Bib.: Després, Louis Hébert et sa famille.

Hébert, Louis. An apothecary in Paris, he followed Poutrincourt to Acadia in 1604; re-visited France in 1607; returned to Acadia, and remained there until 1613. He seems to have been the medical officer at Port Royal, and also to have interested himself in agriculture. Lescarbot says that he took great pleasure in working the soil, and Professor Colby describes him as the “first true colonist of Acadia.” Returned to France, and in 1617 came to Quebec with his family, becoming the first permanent settler in New France. Both in Acadia and at Quebec he enjoyed the friendship and esteem of Champlain. In 1621 he went to Tadoussac as the lieutenant of De Caën; was afterwards made Royal Procurator; and in 1626 secured the seigniory of St. Joseph, on the St. Charles river, with the title of Sieur d’Espinay. Of this pioneer Canadian there are to-day many descendants in the province of Quebec. Died, 1627. Bib.: Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Douglas, Old France in the New World; Després, Louis Hébert et sa famille.

Hector, Sir James (1834-1907). Geologist to the Palliser expedition, 1857-1860. Starting from Port Carlton, in the winter of 1857-1858, he travelled up the North Saskatchewan to Fort Pitt, Fort Edmonton, Rocky Mountain House, and into the first range of the mountains. The following summer he explored the mountains, examining Vermilion, Kananaskis and other passes, reaching the sources of the Kootenay, North Saskatchewan and other streams. Named a number of mountain peaks and other natural features. It was while exploring the river now known as the Kicking Horse that he was kicked by his horse and so furnished a name for the stream. In 1859 he ascended the Athabaska through what is to-day Jasper Park; later crossed the mountains and descended the Columbia to the sea. Elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society of Canada in 1894. He was then in charge of the Colonial Museum of New Zealand at Wellington. Hector Lake, Hector Mountain and Hector Pass named after him. Revisited Canada and the Rockies in 1904. See also Palliser.

Hector, Mount. North of Laggan, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway through the Rockies. Height above sea level 11,205 feet. Named after Sir James Hector. First climbed in 1895 by Professor Fay, P. S. Abbot, and C. S. Thompson. Hector Lake lies at its foot. Bib.: Outram, In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies.

Helmcken, John Sebastian (1832-1920). Studied medicine and admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, 1848. Appointed surgeon at Vancouver Island by Hudson’s Bay Company; first magistrate appointed in the colony. As magistrate stationed at Fort Rupert, where the miners were very unruly. In 1856 elected for Esquimalt district to the first Legislature of the colony; took a very active part in its deliberations; and became Speaker. Member of Executive Council, 1864-1871. Opposed Confederation in 1870. Sent to Ottawa the same year as one of the delegates to negotiate terms of union. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Begg, History of British Columbia.

Hendry, Anthony. Born in the Isle of Wight. Having been outlawed in 1748 for smuggling, he succeeded two years later in entering the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and was sent to York Factory on Hudson Bay. In 1754 he volunteered to go inland and explore the country. Left York Factory in June, 1754, and followed the Hayes route to Oxford lake, and then by a series of waterways to the Saskatchewan. Here he visited a French trading post. La Corne, the officer in charge, was absent, but he met him on his return journey. Hendry struck overland, crossed the South Saskatchewan, and travelled over the plains to the country of the Blackfeet, with whom he wintered, returning in the spring of 1755 to York Factory. His is the first account of the manners and customs of the Blackfeet. See also Cocking. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea. Hendry’s Journal edited for the Royal Society of Canada, Trans., 1907.

Hennepin, Louis. Born in Ath, Belgium, about 1640. Entered order of Récollets. Sailed for Quebec, 1675. Stationed at Fort Frontenac, 1676. Accompanied La Salle to the West, 1678. From Fort Crèvecœur (Peoria, Ill.), in 1680, descended the Illinois and explored the upper waters of the Mississippi. Captured by the Sioux and carried to their country. After eight months, rescued by Du Lhut (q.v.), passed the winter at Michilimackinac, and returned to Quebec, 1682. Apparently satisfied with his adventures in the wilderness, returned to Europe, and settled in Holland, where he devoted himself to the preparation of a series of narratives of his explorations, real and imaginary. Died there about 1706. Bib.: Works: Description de la Louisiane, etc.; Nouvelle Découverte, etc.; Nouveau Voyage, etc. For biog., and bibliog. details of Hennepin’s works, see Thwaites’ edition of the New Discovery, 1903. See also Parkman, La Salle.

Henry, Alexander, the Elder (1739-1824). One of the pioneer fur traders in north-western America. Born in New Jersey. Came to Montreal with Amherst’s army in 1760, and the following year secured a fur trading permit and made his way to Michilimackinac. His Travels and Adventures open in that year and describe his experiences in the west for the following sixteen years. Parkman’s account of the massacre at Michilimackinac in 1763 is drawn from Henry’s narrative. Passed the winter at Sault Ste. Marie, went down with the Indians to Niagara in 1764, returned to Detroit, and back again to Michilimackinac. Spent 1765 fur trading on west side Lake Michigan, and next few years in an attempt to mine copper on Lake Superior. He journeyed west by way of Grand Portage, and was overtaken by Peter Pond and the Frobishers on Lake Winnipeg, reaching the Saskatchewan in October, 1775. He was plundered by a Cree river baron named Chatique, spent the winter trading, hunting and exploring on the western plains, and made his way back to Montreal in the spring. Sailed for Europe in 1776, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, and had an opportunity of describing his adventures to Marie Antoinette. Afterwards settled in Montreal as a merchant. Became a dormant partner of the North West Company. Retired in 1796. King’s Auctioneer in Montreal, 1812-1824. He was for some years a member of the Beaver Club. Bib.: Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories, New York, 1809; new ed. with biog., and other notes, by James Bain, Toronto, 1901. Another edition by M. M. Quaife, 1921. See also Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, and Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Henry, Alexander, the Younger. Nephew of preceding and associated with him at Montreal in 1787. Entered service of North West Company about 1792. His Journal, the original manuscript of which is in the Library of Parliament at Ottawa, and which was published in 1897 with introduction and elaborate notes by Elliott Coues, contains an account of his western travels and experiences, 1799 to 1814. Wintered until 1808 at various posts in what is now the province of Manitoba; then for several years in the Saskatchewan country; and in 1813 sent to the Columbia where he took over Astoria from the Americans. He was primarily a fur trader but his exceedingly frank and racy narrative throws much light not only on the manners and customs of Indians and traders, but also on the history and topography of the west in the early part of the nineteenth century. Drowned, with Donald McKenzie, near Fort George, at the mouth of the Columbia, May 22nd, 1814. Bib.: Works: New Light on the Early History of the Greater North-West: The Manuscript Journals of Alexander Henry and David Thompson, ed. by Elliott Coues, New York, 1897. See also Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Henry, John. Sent by Sir James Craig to the New England states to report on the state of public opinion and the probability of war. He turned traitor, sold his correspondence with Craig’s secretary to the American secretary of state. President Madison used it to stir up public feeling against England. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Edgar, General Brock.

Henry, William Alexander (1816-1888). Represented county of Sydney in Nova Scotia Legislature. Became a member of the government of Nova Scotia in 1852. Solicitor-general, 1854, and in 1856 provincial secretary. Resigned following year. Solicitor-general again in 1859, and in 1863. Attorney-general, 1866. A delegate from Nova Scotia to both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia.

Herald. Newspaper published at Montreal. Established, 1808, as a weekly. Became in 1847 a daily in summer and a tri-weekly in winter. Edward Goff Penny (q.v.) was for many years its proprietor and editor.

Heriot, George (1766-1844). Born in Island of Jersey. Came to Canada, and appointed a clerk in the ordnance department at Quebec, 1799; deputy postmaster-general of British North America, 1800; and afterwards postmaster-general. Served in the War of 1812; second in command under De Salaberry at Châteauguay; major-general, 1841. Bib.: Works: History of Canada; Travels through the Canadas. For biog., see Cyc. Am. Biog.

Herschel Island. Off Arctic coast of Canada, west of mouth of Mackenzie river. Discovered by Sir John Franklin in 1821, and named after Sir William Herschel (1738-1822) the celebrated English astronomer. For years the winter quarters of the Arctic whalers. A post of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Cape Herschel, Devon Island, also named after Sir William Herschel; Herschel Bay and Island, Ellesmere Island, named after his son, also a famous astronomer. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; White, Place-Names in Northern Canada.

Hertel, François. Sent by Frontenac in 1689 in charge of a Three Rivers party to attack the English colonies. Joined Portneuf in the attack on Fort Loyal. He had been carried off as a lad by the Iroquois, and had learned their method of warfare. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac.

Hervey, William (1732-1815). British soldier. Spent the eight years, 1755-1763, in North America. In a return dated April, 1762, he is listed as a captain in the 44th Regiment, stationed at Three Rivers, and major of Brigade. Bib.: Journals of the Hon. William Hervey in North America and Europe from 1765 to 1814, with Order Books at Montreal, 1760-1763.

Hey, William (1733-1797). Born Wrigham, England. Began the study of law at the Middle Temple, 1750, and called to the bar, 1755. Succeeded William Gregory as chief-justice of Quebec, 1766. Went to England, 1773, in connection with the Quebec Act, and did not return to Canada until 1775. Left Canada finally the same year, having been elected to the British House of Commons for Sandwich in 1774. Vacated his seat in 1776, and appointed a commissioner of customs, retaining the position until 1797. A man of high character and ability, who had been consulted a great deal by the government in preparing the Quebec Act. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Lucas, History of Canada; Bradley, Making of Canada; Egerton and Grant, Canadian Constitutional Development; Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents of Canada; Audet, Les juges en chef de la province de Québec (Revue du Droit, 1925).

Hickson, Sir Joseph (1830-1897). Born at Otterburn, England. After some years’ practical experience on various English railways, came to Canada, 1862, as chief accountant of the Grand Trunk. Subsequently promoted to the office of secretary of the company; general manager, 1874. Between that year and 1890, when he retired, succeeded in bringing the Grand Trunk to a high rank among the railways of the continent. See also Grand Trunk Railway. Bib.: Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

High Commissioner for Canada. See Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch; Tupper, Sir Charles; Strathcona and Mount Royal; Perley, Sir George Halsey; Larkin, Peter C.

Highways. See Roads.

Hill, James Jerome (1838-1916). Born near Guelph, Ontario. Moved to Minnesota. Raised a company for service in American civil war. Agent North-Western Packet Company, 1865. Organized, 1870, Red River Transportation Company, which first opened communication between St. Paul and Winnipeg. Associated with Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona) and others in the syndicate that secured control of the St. Paul and Pacific Railway, subsequently known as the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway, and eventually merged in the Great Northern Railway. President of the latter for many years and mainly responsible for its development into a system extending from Lake Superior to Puget Sound. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Pyle, Life of James J. Hill; Vaughan, Sir William Van Horne.

Hill Seventy. August 15th, 1917, as part of the great advance at Lens, after exhaustive training and preparation, the Canadians, 1st, 2nd and 4th divisions, following a terrific barrage, moved forward against the Germans, penetrating their lines to a depth of one mile on a frontage of two miles, and capturing not only Hill Seventy but the villages of St. Laurent, St. Elizabeth, St. Emile and a portion of St. Auguste. A feature of the battle was the use of oil drums, which threw immense quantities of burning oil into the enemy trenches. The detailed accounts of this engagement bring out very distinctly the marked contrast with conditions in the earlier years of the war, the extraordinary increase in volume and precision of the artillery, and the machine-like coördination of infantry, artillery and air service. Desperate counter-attacks were launched by the enemy, in which altogether forty-eight battalions took part, but they failed to wrest Hill Seventy from the Canadians. Bib.: Dawson, The Siege of Lens (Canada in the Great World War, vol. iv.).

Hincks, Sir Francis (1807-1885). Born in Cork, Ireland. Came to Canada, 1830. Engaged in banking in York for several years. Became associated with Robert Baldwin, whose political views coincided with his own. In 1833 appointed an examiner to look into the accounts of the Welland Canal. Secretary of Constitutional Reform Society of Upper Canada, 1836. Established the Examiner at Toronto, 1838, in which he advocated the principles of responsible government. He had visited Montreal and Quebec in 1835 and become acquainted with LaFontaine, Morin and other leaders of the moderate party in French Canada, with whom he later carried on a correspondence in the interests of constitutional reform. Elected for Oxford, 1841. In the Legislature attacked certain provisions of the Act of Union, particularly the fixing of a civil list for Canada by the Imperial Parliament, the unjust basis of representation in both Upper and Lower Canada, and the suppression of the French language as an official medium which he denounced as an “unjust and cruel provision.” He gradually drew away from Baldwin, his political point-of-view being rather to take advantage of present concessions than to oppose everything that did not represent his ultimate ideal. He thought half a loaf better than no bread. In 1842 appointed inspector-general by Bagot. Remained in office in LaFontaine-Baldwin government. In the session of 1843 he took a very active part in debate, being responsible for fiscal and commercial legislation. Burnt in effigy by an Orange mob in Toronto because of legislation aimed at secret societies. When the administration retired, he went back to journalism, editing the Times, Montreal. In 1844 he established the Pilot, Montreal, and used it as an effective weapon against the party in power. In newspaper work as in public life he aroused bitter antagonism among his opponents, one furious Orangeman, Colonel Ogle, challenging him to a duel. At the same time he wrote a series of letters to the London Morning Chronicle answering the arguments of Gibbon Wakefield. He was defeated in the next election and remained out of the Legislature until 1848, having been re-elected for Oxford the previous year while he was absent on a visit to Ireland. Again inspector-general. The adoption of free trade in England had had a depressing effect on commercial life in Canada, because of the loss of the preference to Canadian agricultural exports. Hincks realized the need of a vigorous policy to revive the industries of the country. He encouraged railway building, and advocated reciprocity with the United States. Defended Rebellion Losses bill, 1849. That year he visited England for the purpose of strengthening the credit of Canada in the London market, in which purpose he was eminently successful. To enable British investors to understand the situation in Canada he published in London a pamphlet entitled Canada and its Financial Resources. After his return to Canada he reconstructed the Reform government and became joint premier with Morin. The ministry defeated in 1854. Described by Shortt as a man of more political wisdom than Baldwin. Sydenham had a high opinion of his financial abilities. In 1855 he accepted the office of governor-in-chief of Barbados and the Windward Islands, an interesting departure, but an isolated one, in offering imperial appointments to colonial statesmen. Subsequently he became governor of British Guiana. On his retirement in 1869 made K. C. M. G. In 1870 returned to Canada as finance minister in the Macdonald government, and remained in office until 1873, when he retired finally from public life. Bib.: Political History of Canada; Reminiscences. For biog., see Davin, Irishman in Canada; Dent, Can. Por., and Last Forty Years; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Bourinot, Lord Elgin; Shortt, Lord Sydenham; Lewis, George Brown.

Hind, Henry Youle. Born in Nottingham, England, 1823. Travelled in Mexico, 1846. Came to Canada, 1847, and appointed lecturer in chemistry and natural philosophy at the Toronto Normal School, Toronto. Five years later became professor of chemistry and geology in Trinity College. Geologist to the Red river exploring expedition, 1857; and had charge of the expedition of 1858 to explore the country between Red river and the Saskatchewan. In 1860 carried out an exploration of a portion of Labrador peninsula. In 1854 resigned his chair at Trinity, and undertook a preliminary geological survey of New Brunswick; and in subsequent years carried out similar work for the government of Nova Scotia. In 1876 engaged by the Newfoundland government to report on northern cod banks, but abandoned this work to assist the Canadian government in preparing their case for the Halifax Fisheries Commission. Bib.: Works: Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition of 1857, and the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expedition of 1858; Sketch of the Overland Route to British Columbia; Explorations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula; Eighty Years’ Progress of British North America (by Hind and others). For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can. and Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Historic Landmarks Association of Canada. See Canadian Historical Association.

Historical Portraits. It is obviously impracticable to do more here than indicate very briefly the principal sources. Large collections of Canadian historical portraits will be found in the Public Archives of Canada, the John Ross Robertson Collection in the Toronto Public Library, the Royal Museum of Archæology, Toronto, the Houses of Parliament and Parliamentary Library, Ottawa, the McGill University Library, McCord Museum, Montreal, Château de Ramezay, Montreal, the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, the various Provincial or Legislative Libraries, and the principal university libraries and historical societies. Historical portraits will also be found scattered through the printed transactions of Canadian learned societies, and in many individual works. Also, it should be added, in the collections and printed transactions of such American historical societies as those of New York, Massachusetts, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin and California, and the great national libraries of the United States, England and France. Bib.: Guide to the J. Ross Robertson Historical Collection; Kenney, Catalogue of Pictures in the Public Archives of Canada.

Historical Societies. In addition to the Canadian Historical Association (q.v.) Sections I and II of the Royal Society of Canada are in part devoted to Canadian history; and there are at present the following provincial organizations: the Ontario Historical Society (est. 1888); the Nova Scotia Historical Society (est. 1878); the New Brunswick Historical Society (est. 1874); the British Columbia Historical Association (est. 1922); the Alberta Historical Society. The Manitoba Historical Society (est. 1879), and the Prince Edward Island Historical Society (est. 1881) are in a state of suspended animation. There are also a number of local historical societies, among which may be mentioned the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec (est. 1824); the Société Historique de Montréal (est. 1858); the Kingston Historical Society (est. 1893); Brant Historical Society, Brantford, Ont. (est. 1908); Essex Historical Society, Windsor, Ont. (est. 1904); Lennox and Addington Historical Society, Napanee, Ont. (est. 1909); Huron Institute, Collingwood, Ont. (est. 1904); Kent Historical Society, Chatham, Ont. (est. 1912); London and Middlesex Historical Society, London, Ont. (est. 1901); Thunder Bay Historical Society, Fort William, Ont. (est. 1908); Stratford and Perth Counties Historical Society, Stratford, Ont. (est. 1922); Waterloo Historical Society, Kitchener, Ont. (est. 1912); Wellington Historical Society, Guelph, Ont. (est. 1924); Wentworth Historical Society, Hamilton, Ont. (est. 1890); Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa (est. 1898); Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto (est. 1895); Women’s Wentworth Historical Society (est. 1899); Brome County Historical Society, Knowlton, Que. (est. 1897); Historical Association of Annapolis Royal (est. 1919); Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Montreal (est. 1862); Dundas, Stormont and Glengarry Historical Society, Cornwall, Ont.; Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute, St. Thomas, Ont.; Historical Society of Calgary (est. 1923); Lundy’s Lane Historical Society, Niagara Falls, Ont. (est. 1887); Missisquoi Historical Society, Bedford, Que.; Niagara Historical Society, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ont. (est. 1895). Bib.: Handbook of American Historical Societies.

Hobson, Frederick. Sergeant, 20th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Awarded posthumous Victoria Cross. Near Lens, August 15th, 1917, when a Lewis gun in a very important position was buried by an enemy shell, and the crew with one exception killed, he, though not a gunner, rushed from his trench, dug out the gun and got it into action. A jam caused the gun to stop firing. Though wounded, he turned the gun over to the gunner, and rushing forward at the advancing enemy held them in check with bayonet and clubbed rifle until the Lewis gun was again in action, and he was killed by a rifle shot.

Hochelaga. An Iroquoian town situated, in 1535, on Montreal Island. The site is now covered by the city of Montreal. Marked by a monument in 1925. Cartier visited the town in the year mentioned, and describes it as encircled by a triple row of palisades, with galleries for the defenders. Within stood some fifty large oblong lodges, each housing several families. In 1603, when Champlain visited the place, nothing remained of the town, and Indians of a different stock occupied the island. Bib.: Carrier, Bref récit, etc.; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Fiske, New France and New England; White, Handbook of Indians of Canada.

Hocquart, Gilles. Intendant of New France. Son of Jean-Hyacinthe Hocquart, chevalier, and seigneur d’Essenlis et de Muscourt. Held for a time the office of commissary of marine, and in 1729 obtained from the king a commission as commissary-general of New France. Arrived at Quebec in 1729; and in 1731 succeeded Dupuy as intendant. After nearly twenty years of service in New France, during which he devoted his energies unselfishly to the welfare of the colony, returned to France in 1748, and for some years filled the office of intendant at Brest. Appointed a councillor of state, 1753. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, Half-Century of Conflict.

Hodgins, John George (1821-1912). Born in Dublin. Came to Canada, 1833. Educated at Upper Canada Academy, Victoria College, and Toronto University. He is described as the right-hand man of Egerton Ryerson in his educational policy. Appointed to department of education of Upper Canada, 1844; secretary of provincial board of education, 1846; deputy superintendent of education, 1855; deputy minister of education, 1876-1889; librarian and historiographer of the education department, 1889-1912. Bib.: Works: Documentary History of Education in Upper Canada; Legislation and History of Separate Schools in Upper Canada. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Hodgson, Sir Robert (1798-1880). Born in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Educated at Windsor, Nova Scotia, and called to the bar of Nova Scotia and of Prince Edward Island, 1819. Appointed judge of Probate and attorney-general for Prince Edward Island, 1828; president of the Legislative Council, 1840. Appointed chief-justice, 1852, and judge of the Court of Vice-Admiralty, 1853; resigned both offices to accept the lieutenant-governorship of Prince Edward Island, 1874. Held office until 1879. Died in Charlottetown. Bib.: Campbell, History of Prince Edward Island.

Holland, Edward. Sergeant, Royal Canadian Dragoons. Victoria Cross. Served through the South African War with the Canadian Contingent. During the action at Komati river, November 7th, 1900, he did splendid work with his Colt gun, and kept the Boers off the twelve-pounders by its fire at close range. When he saw that the enemy were too near for him to escape with the gun carriage as his horse was already blown, he calmly lifted the gun off the carriage and galloped away with it under his arm. Promoted subsequently to rank of major.

Holland, Samuel (1728-1801). United Empire Loyalist. Born in the Netherlands. Had been surveyor-general of the colonies north of Virginia. Served as a major in the French war, and in the expeditions against Louisbourg and Quebec. Was near Wolfe when he fell on the plains of Abraham. Emigrated to Canada after the revolution, where for nearly fifty years he carried out the duties of surveyor-general. Succeeded by his nephew, Joseph Bouchette (q.v.). Became a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils. In 1780 he bought a farm and mansion near Quebec, and there in 1791 he entertained Prince Edward, Duke of Kent. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists; Chipman, Life and Times of Major Samuel Holland, Surveyor-general, 1764-1801, (Papers and Records, Ont. Hist. Soc., 1924).

Holmes, Benjamin E. One of leaders of the Liberal party in Lower Canada. An Irishman of broad and patriotic views. Elected for Montreal, 1841. An authority on banking, and a strong advocate of public improvements, an intelligent immigration policy, and an efficient system of education. At farewell banquet to LaFontaine in 1851. Bib.: Davin, The Irishman in Canada.

Holmes, Charles (1711-1761). Served in Carthagena expedition, 1741; and in action with Spanish fleet in Gulf of Florida, 1748. Member of Byng court-martial, 1757. Appointed rear-admiral, 1758. Third in command under Sir Charles Saunders (q.v.) before Quebec, 1759, and ably seconded him in making effective use of the fleet both before the city and above it. Commander-in-chief in West Indies, 1760-1761. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Woods, Logs of the Conquest of Canada and The Fight for Canada; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Holmes, Thomas William. Private, 4th Canadian Mounted Rifles, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. On October 26th, 1917, near Passchendaele, when the advance was being held up by heavy machine-gun and rifle fire from an enemy “pill-box,” he ran forward, single-handed, armed with bombs, and destroyed the crews of two machine-guns; then securing another bomb, he returned under heavy fire and forced the nineteen occupants of the “pill-box” to surrender.

Holton, Luther Hamilton (1817-1880). Entered public life, 1854, as one of the members for Montreal; elected to Legislative Council, 1862; resigned, 1863, and returned to the Assembly as member for Châteauguay, which he represented to the time of his death; signed annexation manifesto in 1849; associated at one time with the Parti Rouge, but afterwards adopted less radical views; accepted portfolio of commissioner of public works in the short-lived Brown-Dorion government, 1858; minister of finance in the Macdonald-Dorion administration, 1863-1864. Opposed Confederation. An associate of George Brown. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Mackenzie, Hon. George Brown; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party; Confederation Debates.

Home Rule in Ireland. Resolution proposed in Canadian Parliament in 1882 and almost unanimously adopted. Warmly supported by Edward Blake. See Costigan. Bib.: Parkin, Sir John A. Macdonald.

Honey, Samuel Lewis. Lieutenant, 78th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Posthumous Victoria Cross. During the Bourlon Wood operations, September, 1918, when all other officers of his company had become casualties, he took command and skilfully reorganized under very severe fire, continuing the advance and gaining the objective. Finding his company was suffering casualties from enfilade machine-gun fire, he rushed the position single-handed, capturing the guns and ten prisoners. After dark he went out alone and located an enemy post, and led a party which captured it and three guns. Continued in the succeeding days to display the same high example of valour and self-sacrifice. Died of wounds received on the last day of the attack.

Hooker, Mount. On the east side of Athabaska pass. Named by David Douglas, the botanist, in 1827, and estimated by him to be nearly 17,000 feet above the sea. This and Mount Brown assumed for years to be the highest peaks in North America. Mount Hooker is actually about 10,000 feet. Its identity uncertain. Douglas’ description points to a mountain that rises immediately above the pass, and known to the early fur traders as McGillivray’s Rock. The Geographic Board of Canada has decided in favour of another and higher peak, several miles from the pass. Bib.: Burpee, On the Old Athabaska Trail; Thorington, Glittering Mountains of Canada.

Hope, Henry. Commissary-general at Quebec, 1784. Promoted to brigadier-general, and lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1785-1789. A favourite of Haldimand’s. Administered the government from 1785 until Dorchester’s arrival in 1787. In 1786 he had been offered, but declined, the lieutenant-governorship of New Brunswick. Reported against the proposal that the Loyalists in Upper Canada should be given a separate government. Died at Quebec, 1789. One of the Quebec gates was named in his honour. Bib.: Shortt and Doughty, Constitutional Documents of Canada.

Hopkins, Caleb. One of the leaders of the Clear Grits in Upper Canada. A farmer of considerable energy and natural ability. Bib.: Bourinot, Lord Elgin.

Hopson, Peregrine Thomas. Early entered the army and advanced rapidly. Commander-in-chief of Louisbourg, when the place was restored to the French, 1749. Came to Halifax and appointed a member of the Council. Governor of Nova Scotia, 1752; went to England, 1753. Raised to the rank of major-general, 1757. Commanded an expedition against the French West India Islands, 1758; died before Guadaloupe, 1759. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

House of Assembly. See Legislative Assembly.

House of Commons. Name first applied to a legislature in Canada by the British North America Act, Sec. 17. Its powers, privileges and duties are set forth in that Act. Bib.: Bourinot, Constitution of Canada.

Houses of Parliament. First Lower Canadian Legislature met in Quebec, 1792, in the chapel of the bishop’s palace, and continued to sit there until 1838, when moved to Montreal. First Upper Canada Legislature met in Newark (Niagara); later moved to York (Toronto). Building destroyed by Americans in War of 1812-1814. Later in a brick building at foot of Berkeley Street. Legislature of Nova Scotia first met 1758 in a grammar school house in Halifax. The Province building was completed, 1818. Legislature of New Brunswick first met in St. John, 1786. Following year moved to Fredericton. First Legislature of Prince Edward Island met Charlottetown, 1773. After the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the Legislature sat in Kingston, 1841, in a building afterwards the general hospital. In 1844 it moved to Montreal, and sat there until 1849, in a building formerly a market, which stood in what is now Youville Square. After the signing of the Rebellion Losses bill the building was destroyed by a mob. Parliament then sat alternately in Quebec and Toronto, and in 1866 moved to Ottawa. Parliament buildings there were built, 1859-1865, and the central building destroyed by fire, 1916. Corner-stone of new building laid by Duke of Connaught, 1916, and foundation stone of memorial tower by Prince of Wales, 1919. See also Seat of Government.

Howard, Joseph. An early merchant of Montreal, particularly interested in the western fur trade. Dr. Atherton (Montreal, 1535-1914) says that Howard, Chinn and Bostwick was probably the first British firm of merchants in Montreal. Howard left the firm and went into business on his own account. Accused of complicity in the attack on the unpopular magistrate Walker, he was tried and acquitted.

Howe, Edward. Member of the Council of Nova Scotia, 1744. Took part in the affair at Mines under Colonel Noble, 1747; severely wounded and taken prisoner, but afterwards exchanged. Judge of the Court of Admiralty. Confidential agent of the government in dealing with the Indians. Treacherously murdered by Indians, at the instigation, it is said, of Le Loutre in 1751. Richard (Acadia) gives an entirely different version of his death. Bib.: Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins.

Howe, George Augustus, third Viscount (1724-1758). Came to Halifax, 1757, in command of 60th Regiment. Transferred to command of 55th same year, and promoted brigadier-general. Accompanied Abercromby to Lake George, 1758, and fell July 8th, while leading his men in a skirmish at Fort Ticonderoga. A brilliant general. Had he lived, the battle of Ticonderoga might have had a very different issue. See Abercromby; Ticonderoga. Bib.: Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Bradley, Fight for North America; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Howe, John (1774-1835). United Empire Loyalist. A native of Boston, he emigrated to Halifax after the Revolution. Had conducted the Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter, in Boston, and established a newspaper in Halifax soon after his arrival. Appointed king’s printer, and later postmaster-general for the maritime provinces. His son Joseph said of him: “For thirteen years he was my instructor, my playfellow, almost my daily companion. To him I owe my fondness for reading, my familiarity with the Bible, my knowledge of old colonial and American incidents and characteristics. He left me nothing but his example and the memory of his many virtues, for all that he ever earned was given to the poor. He was too good for this world; but the remembrance of his high principles, his cheerfulness, his child-like simplicity, and truly Christian character, is never absent from my mind.” Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Howe, Joseph (1804-1873). Born in Halifax. Son of preceding, from whom he acquired a taste for good reading, and in whose office he also learned the trade of a printer. In 1827 purchased the Weekly Chronicle, Halifax, and changed its name to the Acadian. Edited it for a short time, then sold it and acquired the Nova Scotian. A man of tireless energy and ambition, and determined to make his paper a power in the province, he wrote its editorials, collected its news, and introduced a new feature by reporting and publishing the debates in the Assembly. In extending its circulation he visited various parts of Nova Scotia, and thus acquired an intimate knowledge of the different districts and the characteristics and views of the people. He had already written a good deal of occasional verse, and now brought out in his newspaper a series of letters entitled Rambles, which did much to arouse the pride of Nova Scotians in the resources and scenery of their province. About this time also he, with Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Lawrence Doyle and several other brilliant young writers, conducted a department in the paper called “The Club,” in which public questions and public men were discussed with freedom and incisiveness. In 1829 he published Haliburton’s history of Nova Scotia, and the same year began to take an active interest in provincial politics, his views steadily swinging toward responsible government. In 1835, following an attack in his paper on Halifax magistrates for corruption, he was sued for libel, decided to plead his own case, and, although the chief-justice charged the jury against him, he was unanimously acquitted. The following year he was elected to the Assembly for Halifax with William Annand. He entered public life with an unusual endowment: a tremendous capacity for hard work, a buoyant and optimistic temperament, a keen sense of humour, a wide range of reading aided by a retentive memory, an easy and natural style both of writing and public speaking, and that touch of real eloquence and personal magnetism that mark the difference between a politician and a statesman. He made his presence felt in the Legislature from the outset, and soon came to be regarded as the leader of the democratic party. He put through a series of resolutions calling for responsible government, and embodied them in an address to the crown. The colonial secretary, in his reply, conceded many of the points demanded, but would not admit the principle of executive responsibility. Both the governor and the Executive Council, thwarted in every way the aims of the popular party. In 1840 the governor, Sir Colin Campbell, was recalled, and Lord Falkland sent out in his place. Howe accepted a seat on his Council. In 1842 he was elected Speaker of the Assembly, and the same year appointed collector of customs at Halifax. In 1843 he resigned the Speakership. He had always taken a deep interest in education, and advocated the establishment of a system of compulsory education and a central undenominational college. In the election of 1843 J. W. Johnston had a small majority. Howe resigned his seat on the Council, and set himself the task of defeating what he considered a reactionary conspiracy between the Tories and the governor. Bitterly attacked Falkland in both prose and verse. Howe assumed editorial management of the Morning Chronicle and the Nova Scotian. Sir John Harvey, who succeeded Falkland, offered Howe a seat on the Council, but he declined. Reëlected, 1847, and became provincial secretary in Uniacke government. Had the satisfaction of seeing the granting of that full measure of responsible government for which he had been contending. Strongly advocated the building of railways in the province, and in 1850 sailed for England to explain the Intercolonial project to the home government. Obtained imperial guarantee, and secured coöperation of New Brunswick and Canada. Elected for Cumberland county, 1851. Became chief commissioner of railways. Defeated by Tupper in Cumberland, 1855. Returned by acclamation for Hants following year. Became provincial premier, 1859. Fishery commissioner to carry out provisions of reciprocity treaty, 1854. Defeated with his party, 1863. Opposed Confederation and declined to attend the Charlottetown Conference, 1864. Created the Anti-Confederation League, and carried his opposition to England. Swept the province in both the provincial and Dominion elections on the anti-Confederation issue. Carried on for a time an agitation for repeal of the union, but recognizing its fruitlessness abandoned the movement. Entered Dominion cabinet, 1868, as president of the Privy Council. Reëlected for Hants. Visited Winnipeg in 1869 in an effort to allay ill-feeling in the Red river country. Became lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1873. Bib.: Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe, ed. by Chisholm; Poems and Essays. For biog., see Fenety, Life and Times of Joseph Howe; Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia; Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia; Longley, Joseph Howe; Grant, Joseph Howe; Grant, Tribune of Nova Scotia.

Howe, William, Viscount (1729-1814). Brother of George Augustus, Viscount Howe (q.v.), and Admiral Lord Howe. Commanded 58th Regiment at capture of Louisbourg, 1758. Commanded light infantry under Wolfe at Quebec, 1759. Captured posts at Samos and Sillery. Took part in the defence of Quebec, 1759-1760. Commanded brigade in Montreal expedition, 1760. At siege of Belle Isle, 1761. Adjutant-general at conquest of Havana, 1762. Major-general, 1772; lieutenant-general, 1775. Represented Nottingham in British Parliament, 1758-1780. Succeeded Gage as commander-in-chief in America, 1775. On the whole his conduct of the campaign was weak. Commanded British forces at Bunker Hill. Abandoned Boston and occupied New York. Defeated Washington at White Plains, 1776, and at Brandywine, 1777. Recalled, 1778. Promoted general, 1793. Succeeded to viscountcy, 1799. Became governor of Berwick, and later of Plymouth. Bib.: Narrative. For biog., see Cyc. Am. Biog.; Rhodes, History of the United States; Dict. Nat. Biog.

Howland, Sir William Pearce (1811-1907). Born at Paulings, New York. Came to Canada in 1830. Represented West York in the Legislature, 1857-1868. Member of Macdonald-Sicotte ministry, 1862, as minister of finance; receiver-general, 1863-1864; postmaster-general, 1864-1866. Accompanied Galt to Washington to discuss reciprocity in 1865; minister of finance, 1866-1867. Minister of inland revenue in first Dominion Cabinet, 1867. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1868; retired, 1873; knighted, 1879. Headed one of the syndicates that offered to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada.

Howse, Joseph (1773-1852). An employee of the Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1810 he crossed the Rocky mountains by the pass that bears his name, and travelled down to near Kalispell, Montana, where he built a trading post, “the only post west of the Rockies constructed by the Hudson’s Bay Company prior to the union with the North West Company in 1821.” In 1814 he took part in the conflict with the North West Company on the Red river, was captured and held prisoner for a time in Fort Gibraltar. Author of a Grammar of the Cree Language, published in 1844, and elected a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Died at Cirencester, England.

Howse Pass. In Rocky Mountains; source of North Saskatchewan river. Discovered by Duncan McGillivray, 1800. First traversed by David Thompson in 1807. Subsequently named after Joseph Howse, of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who is sometimes confused with Jasper Hawse or Howse of the North West Company, after whom Jasper House was named. Howse pass was for some years the thoroughfare of the fur trade through the Rockies, until the Piegan interfered and forced Thompson to open up the more northerly route by Athabaska pass.

Hubbard, William. United Empire Loyalist. Went to St. John from New England in 1783, and was a grantee or founder of that town. Settled in the county of Sunbury, New Brunswick, and became registrar of deeds and wills, deputy surrogate, and a member of the Assembly. Appointed to the bench, and chief-justice of the Court of Common Pleas. Died, 1813. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Hubert, Jean François. Bishop of Quebec, 1788-1797. His views on education before the committee of 1787 in Canada were reactionary and opposed to the progressive views of his coadjutor Bailly. He, however, accepted as reasonable the government’s veto on the introduction of ecclesiastics from France. Bib.: Bradley, Lord Dorchester.

Hudson, Henry. Made four notable voyages: the first, in 1607, for the Muscovy Company, in search of a north-eastern passage to China; the second, in 1608, for the same Company, and in search of the same passage; the third, in 1609, at the expense of the Dutch East India Company, begun, like the two former, in search of a north-eastern passage, but changed to a quest of a north-western passage; the fourth, in 1610, in search of a north-western passage, the expense borne by three English gentlemen. In his first voyage, he explored the coast of Spitzbergen; in the second, part of Nova Zembla; in the third, the Hudson river; and in the last, Hudson Strait and part of the bay. Wintered, 1610-1611, at the foot of James Bay, and on the return voyage was set adrift with eight companions in a small boat, and never again heard of. “Of all the dark mysteries of the merciless ocean,” says Sir W. F. Butler, “no mystery lies wrapped in deeper shadow than that which hangs over the fate of Hudson.” Bib.: Asher, Henry Hudson, the Navigator; Read, Historical Enquiry concerning Henry Hudson; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea. See also bibliog. list in Asher.

Hudson Bay. Excluding Fox Channel and Hudson Strait, but including James Bay, it is approximately 1,000 miles from north to south and 600 miles from east to west, with an area of about 567,000 square miles. Hudson Bay proper has a fairly uniform depth of about seventy fathoms, but James Bay is very shallow, and even small vessels cannot approach the shore. Explored by Henry Hudson, 1610, and named after him; by Sir Thomas Button, 1612; Gibbons, 1614; Bylot and Baffin, 1615; Hawkridge, 1617; Jens Munk, 1619; Foxe and James, 1631. The net result of these voyages, eliminating those of Gibbons and Hawkridge as unimportant, was as follows: Hudson discovered for the first time the general features of the strait, and the eastern coast of the bay down to its extreme foot. Button made known the rough outlines of the west coast, from Wager Bay to Port Nelson. Foxe and James both contributed to a more exact delineation of the coast covered by Button, and both almost simultaneously, though quite independently, explored the hitherto unknown coast from Port Nelson to Cape Henrietta Maria, while James alone explored the eastern shores of James Bay. Bylot and Baffin explored the northern coasts of the bay, and Munk apparently discovered the mouth of the Churchill. Although the primary object of all these voyages—the discovery of the North-West Passage—was not accomplished, they resulted in a very important piece of exploration, the charting of the entire coast-line of one of the largest and most remarkable of inland seas. In 1668 the first trading ship of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the Nonsuch, with Médard Chouart on board, sailed into the bay, and the first trading post of the Company was built at the mouth of Rupert river. Two years later Pierre Esprit Radisson, who with Chouart had reached the bay overland from the south in 1662, and who had been largely instrumental in creating the Hudson’s Bay Company, also sailed for the bay, and built the first of several posts at the mouth of the Nelson, afterwards known as York Factory. At later dates other trading posts, Prince of Wales or Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill, Fort Albany at the mouth of the Albany, Fort Severn at the mouth of the Severn, and Moose Factory at the mouth of the Moose, were established. Chouart’s post was first named Charles Fort, in honour of the king, and afterwards Rupert House. For many years the title to the country about the bay was disputed by France, and expeditions were sent north from Canada to capture the Company’s posts. Finally, all the posts were restored, and France abandoned her claim. See Iberville and De Troyes; also under names of explorers and trading posts. In comparatively recent years the Dominion government has sent out both by sea and land a number of expeditions to complete the exploration of the bay and strait, and to report upon the period of navigability of the strait, ice conditions, the mineral and other resources of the country, its flora and fauna, and so forth. See reports listed below. Bib.: Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Asher, Henry Hudson the Navigator; Gosch, Expedition of Jens Munk; Christy, Voyages of Foxe and James; Coats, Geography of Hudson’s Bay; Robson, Six Years’ Residence in Hudson’s Bay; Dobbs, Account of Countries Adjoining Hudson’s Bay; Gordon, Report on Hudson’s Bay Expedition; Wakeham, Second Hudson’s Bay Expedition; Low, Expedition to Hudson Bay; Bernier, Report on Dominion Government Expedition to Arctic Islands and Hudson Strait; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea. See also General Indexes to the Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada.

Hudson Bay Route. The practicability of a rail and water route from the Canadian prairies to Europe by way of Hudson Bay has been a matter of investigation and discussion for many years. Government expeditions were sent by sea to investigate the period of navigability of Hudson Strait; and survey parties covered the ground from the Saskatchewan to the Bay, to report upon the best routes for a railway, and the most suitable port. The railway having been decided upon, work was commenced in 1911, and discontinued during the War. The mouth of the Nelson was selected as the terminal port, and considerable work was done there in dredging, the building of docks, etc. In 1920 there had been laid 332 miles of rail, and 214 miles were in operation, out of a total of 424 miles. It is now part of the Canadian National System. Bib.: Skelton, The Railway Builders.

Hudson Strait. Connecting Hudson Bay with the Atlantic. Named after Henry Hudson. By whom it was first discovered is uncertain. Sebastian Cabot is said, but with slight probability, to have entered the strait in 1498. Dr. Asher, who made a study of the Portuguese voyages, believed that they traversed the strait and entered Hudson Bay between 1558 and 1567. Frobisher was near the strait in 1578, and Davis entered it in 1587, as well as Weymouth in 1602. Hudson sailed through in 1610, and after him a host of other navigators, followed by the ships of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Hudson’s Bay Company. Charter granted by King Charles II in 1670 to “The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson’s Bay.” The early history of the Company outlined under Hudson Bay. Exploration and particularly the search for the long-sought North-West Passage was made the principal obligation, in return for which the Company was given the lordship over an immense empire, all the territory whose rivers drained into Hudson Bay, in other words the three prairie provinces of Canada with northern Ontario and Quebec, and a considerable part of the states of Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana. It should be added that, following successive and successful French raids to the Bay, and succeeding treaties, the British government put a more restricted interpretation on the Company’s territories, otherwise known as Rupert’s Land. It is probably not unfair to say that the Company never seriously felt its obligation. Nevertheless, it did send several expeditions by water to search for a passage in the north-western part of the bay, and it also to some extent at least explored the interior, or rather its employees did, sometimes with the Company’s approval and sometimes entirely on their own initiative. Among these land expeditions were those of Henry Kellsey, Anthony Hendry, Matthew Cocking and Samuel Hearne. The surveys and astronomical work of Philip Turnor, Peter Fidler and, in his earlier years, of David Thompson, may also be credited to the Company. See under these names. For many years the operations of the Company were confined to the shores of the bay. They found that the Indians could be persuaded to bring their furs down to Prince of Wales Fort, York Factory and the other posts, and there was no incentive to go inland at considerable cost and discomfort and even danger to themselves. Finally, it became apparent that the traders from Montreal, afterwards incorporated as the North West Company, were rapidly taking the trade away from them, by bringing goods to the Indians instead of forcing them to travel long distances with their furs. Hearne was sent to the Saskatchewan in 1774 to build Cumberland House, on Cumberland lake. This was a strategic point of immense importance, on the portage route from the Saskatchewan north to the Churchill, and at once put the Hudson’s Bay Company on an equality with its rivals. From that time the contest for the fur trade became increasingly keen. Posts of the two Companies were often built side by side on some remote lake or river, and the rival traders fought for furs, sometimes good-naturedly, sometimes with bitter animosity. There was an inevitable incentive to use liquor as a bribe with the Indians, with demoralizing results to both natives and traders. Finally, the situation became intolerable, in such tragic incidents as the Seven Oaks affair, when Governor Semple of the Hudson’s Bay Company lost his life. In 1821 the two Companies were united under the name of the older, and with larger resources of men and money spread farther afield than either had hitherto thought possible. At the height of its power the trading posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company extended from Labrador to the Pacific and from the Arctic to California. In 1869 the Company after prolonged negotiations with the British and Canadian governments, surrendered its territorial rights to Canada for £300,000 together with the reservation of one-twentieth of the fertile belt and certain areas surrounding its trading posts. Ultimately these lands proved much more valuable than the money compensation. The unfortunate way in which the negotiations were carried out, without consulting or even notifying the settlers on Red river, helped to bring about the Rebellion of 1869-1870. In 1920 the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the chartering of the Company was celebrated at Winnipeg with elaborate pageants and other ceremonies. In recent years the Company has established a number of general stores in the western Canadian cities. These, with its extensive land interests, and the still active fur trade, give it a much greater interest in Western Canada than it had in either the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. See North West Company; X Y Company; Fur Trade; Radisson; Selkirk; Simpson; Douglas; McLoughlin. Bib.: Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company; Willson, Great Company; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea; Bryce, Romantic History of Lord Selkirk’s Colonists; Ross, Red River Settlement; Hargrave, Red River; Begg, History of the North-West; Cowie, Company of Adventurers; Schooling, The Hudson’s Bay Company, 1670-1902.

Hughes, Sir Sam (1853-1921). Born at Darlington, Ontario. For some years a public school teacher; then engaged in journalism. Served in Fenian Raids, 1870, and in South Africa, 1899-1900. Promoted colonel, 1902. Sat for North Victoria in House of Commons, 1892-1904, and for Victoria and Haliburton, 1904-1921. Minister of militia and defence, 1911-1916. His dynamic energy and resourcefulness were invaluable in the early part of the war in getting Canada’s army trained and overseas at the earliest possible moment. K.C.B., 1915; major-general, 1912; lieutenant-general, 1916. His son G. B. Hughes rose to rank of major-general in the Great War. Bib.: Greene, Who’s Who and Why.

Huguenots. A few came to Canada in the early years of the French régime, the most distinguished being De Monts (q.v.). After 1628 they were expressly forbidden by Richelieu to settle in Canada, though they might trade there provided they did not openly practice their religion. On the pros and cons of the policy of exclusion, see Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime.

Hull, William (1753-1825). Served during the Revolutionary War; major-general of militia in Massachusetts and a member of the federal senate; appointed governor of Michigan, 1805; commander of the north-western army of the United States, 1812. Early in the war, crossed the Detroit river, occupied Sandwich, and issued a bombastic proclamation to the people of Canada. Retreated to his own side, and forced to surrender Detroit with his entire army to General Brock, 1812; sent to Montreal as prisoner of war; released on parole; tried by court-martial, and sentenced to be shot; sentence commuted. Bib.: Cyc., Am. Biog.; Campbell, Life and Services of General William Hull; Cruikshank, General Hull’s Invasion of Canada in 1812 (R. S. C., 1907-1908).

Hull. Town in province of Quebec, on Ottawa river, opposite city of Ottawa. Founded, 1800, by Philemon Wright, who came from Woburn, Massachusetts. Named after Hull, England, which had been the home of Wright’s father. Visited and described by Ross Cox, the fur trader, in 1817. See his Adventures on the Columbia River. Incorporated as a city, 1875.

Hume, Joseph (1777-1855). Entered Parliament, 1812, but on account of his independent principles compelled to resign his seat. Again elected, 1818, and continued a member of the House of Commons until his death. A strong Radical, and effected many useful reforms. Carried on a correspondence with William Lyon Mackenzie and Papineau, and represented their interests in British Parliament. Urged amnesty for Mackenzie after the Rebellion. An associate of Sydenham’s in the British House. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Dent, Upper Canadian Rebellion.

Hundredth Regiment. Quartered at Quebec in 1806, under the command of Murray. The previous year a dozen officers and 200 men had been drowned in a wreck off the coast of Newfoundland. Another regiment of the same name was raised in 1858; known as the Royal Canadian; later part of the Leinster Regiment. Recruited originally in Canada for service during the Indian Mutiny. Bib.: Canada: An Ency., vol. 4.

Hungabee, Mount. One of the famous mountains of the Valley of the Ten Peaks and Lake Louise, in the Canadian Rockies, south of the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Height, 11,305 feet. First climbed in 1903 by H. C. Parker with two Alpine guides, C. and H. Kaufmann. The name, which means the “chieftain,” was given by Walter D. Wilcox in 1894. Bib.: Wilcox, Rockies of Canada.

Hungry Year. The year 1787 was so called in Upper Canada because of the failure of the harvest, a catastrophe anywhere, but particularly in a pioneer country. Bib.: Scott, John Graves Simcoe.

Hunt, Thomas Sterry (1826-1892). Born in Norwich, Connecticut. Came to Canada, 1847, at the invitation of Sir William E. Logan, to accept the position of chemist and mineralogist to the Geological Survey, which he held until 1872. Helped to lay the foundations of the Survey; and did an immense amount of valuable field work. Also occupied the chair of chemistry in Laval University, 1856-1862; and in McGill University, 1862-1868. In 1872 professor of geology in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Author of several scientific works, and a large number of papers contributed to learned societies and scientific periodicals. Died in New York. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.

Hunter, Peter (1746-1805). Lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, and commander of the forces in Canada 1802. Had previously been governor of Barbadoes, had seen service in the army, and reached the rank of major-general. Died at Quebec. Bib.: Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada; Rattray, The Scot in British North America.

Hunters’ Lodges. An American secret society, used in 1838 as a cloak for a movement to invade Canada. They crossed the river to attack Prescott in November, took refuge in a stone windmill, and were forced to surrender. Bib.: Lindsey, William Lyon Mackenzie.

Hunting Permits. See Licenses

Huntington, Herbert. Appointed to Executive Council of Nova Scotia, 1837. A sturdy advocate of reform and a supporter of Joseph Howe. Left out when Council reconstructed the following year. Sent as delegate to England to urge the concession of responsible government. Candidate for Speaker, 1843. Advocated system of non-sectarian education. Member of Uniacke government, 1848, as financial secretary. Bib.: Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia.

Huntington, Lucius Seth (1827-1886). Born at Compton, Quebec. Studied law, and engaged in journalism, in the Eastern Townships. Elected to the Legislature for Shefford, 1861; solicitor-general, 1863-1864. Advocated independence of Canada. Brought charges against Macdonald government in connection with Pacific Scandal. Became president of the Council, in the Mackenzie government, 1874-1875; and postmaster-general, 1875-1878. Defeated for Shefford, 1882, and retired from public life. Died in New York. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Buckingham and Ross, Alexander Mackenzie; Pope, Memoirs of Sir John A. Macdonald; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

Huron Indians. Name applied by the French to a confederacy of four Iroquoian tribes. For origin of name, see Hodge. First visited by Champlain and Father Le Caron in 1615. When French missionaries and explorers first went among them, they occupied the country about Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay. They had been at enmity with the Iroquois for many years, and had repeatedly ravaged their country. Finally the Iroquois determined to make an end of the Hurons. They invaded their country in force in 1648, and in 1650 had destroyed all their villages, killed most of the inhabitants, and driven the remnant far to the westward. They tortured some of the Jesuit missionaries, and broke up the missions. A few of the Hurons escaped to Quebec, and settled at the mission of Lorette. In the seventeenth century their population was estimated at from 20,000 to 35,000. In 1905 there remained a total of 832, in Canada and the United States. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Parkman, Old Régime.

Huron, Lake. Area, 23,200 square miles. Discovered by Le Caron, 1615, and first seen by Champlain the same year. He called it Mer douce. Father Membré named it Lac d’Orleans, and Hennepin used the same name. Known as Lac Karegnondi in 1656. Appeared as Lac des Hurons on de l’Isle’s map of 1790. The route of missionaries, explorers, and fur traders lay along the north shore of the lake, or the south shore of Manitoulin Island, to Michilimackinac and Sault Ste. Marie, at the western end. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland.

Huronia. On Georgian Bay. The land of the Hurons in the seventeenth century, and the scene of the Jesuit missions and martyrdom. The first missionaries were Récollets. In 1626 they turned over the difficult field to the more militant Jesuits. Brébeuf was the first to reach the new mission field. Daniel and Davost followed in 1634, the history of the mission having been interrupted in the interval by Kirke’s capture of Quebec. The first headquarters of the missionaries was at St. Joseph. Here they remained for three years, labouring among the Hurons, at first with some success, later under exceedingly discouraging conditions. Other missionaries arrived at Huronia from time to time, Chaumonot and Lalement and Ragueneau, Garnier, Chabanel and Garreau. In 1647-1649 the Iroquois broke up the mission. Abandoning the mainland, the Jesuits established themselves for a time on Isle St. Joseph (Christian Island). In 1650, finding their position impossible, they led the remnants of their converts down to Quebec. See also Jesuits. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America; Marquis, The Jesuit Missions.

Hutcheson, Bellenden Seymour. Captain, Canadian Army Medical Corps. Victoria Cross. On September 2nd, 1918, during the attack on the Quéant-Drocourt Support Line, he dressed the wounds of a seriously wounded officer under terrific machine-gun and shell fire. Having brought him to safety, he rushed forward, in full view of the enemy and under very heavy machine-gun and rifle fire, and carried a wounded sergeant into a shell hole where he dressed his wounds. With complete disregard of personal safety he remained on the field until every wounded man had been removed.

Hutchinson, Foster. Brother of Thomas Hutchinson, governor of Massachusetts. United Empire Loyalist. Graduated at Harvard in 1743. Raised to the bench of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, he was one of the last royal judges of the colony. Emigrated to Halifax in 1776 with his family. Died in Nova Scotia, 1799. His son, of the same name, became an assistant judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, and died in 1815. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Iberville, Pierre Le Moyne, Sieur d’ (1661-1706). Third son of Charles Le Moyne, Sieur de Longueuil. Entered the French navy, returning to Canada in 1683. Three years later accompanied De Troyes in the expedition against the English on Hudson Bay, and took part in the capture of Moose Factory, Fort Rupert, and Albany. Returned to Quebec in 1687; and the following year was again on the bay. In 1689 captured the Hampshire, and brought her to Quebec with her cargo of furs. In 1690 took part in the raid on Schenectady; and the same year captured Fort Severn on Hudson Bay. In 1694 sailed to the bay with a French fleet, and captured Fort Nelson. Two years later captured Pemaquid; and, sailing to Newfoundland, captured St. John’s and raided the villages along the coast. In 1697 again sailed to Hudson Bay, defeated a superior fleet, and recaptured Fort Nelson. The following year sailed from Brest in command of an expedition to discover the mouth of the Mississippi and plant a colony there, in both of which he was successful. Most of the remaining years of his life were spent in building up the colony of Louisiana. Returned to France, 1702, in ill health. Led an expedition against the British in the West Indies in 1706, and on July 6th died at Havana. See also Le Moyne. Bib.: Reed, First Great Canadian; Parkman, Half-Century of Conflict; Laut, Conquest of the Great North-West; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; Desmazures, Histoire du Chevalier d’Iberville; Gayarre, History of Louisiana; Margry, Découvertes des Français; Wallace, Louisiana under the French; Martin, History of Louisiana; Bacqueville de la Potherie, Histoire de l’Amérique Septentrionale; Jerémie, Relation du Detroit et de la Baye d’Hudson (Bernard, Recueil de Voiages au Nord.) See also bibliography at the end of Reed’s work.

Icelanders. Because of the probability that the first white man to set foot on the continent of America was Leif son of Eric the Red, an Icelander and the discoverer of Greenland, it is peculiarly appropriate that Icelanders should make their home in Canada. The first colony of Icelanders settled in the Canadian North-West in 1875, arriving there by way of Nova Scotia. Many afterwards made their homes in Manitoba, where they have learned to be appreciated as the best possible type of settler. They have their own newspapers, but none the less do not stand apart from the rest of the people as have the Doukhobors and some other groups. They have added to Canadian life and literature a distinct note of vigour and originality. By the census of 1921 there were in Canada 15,876 people of Icelandic origin.

Île à la Crosse. Lake and trading post. The lake is on the upper waters of the Churchill river, in about long. 108°. Its name is derived from the Indian game of lacrosse, which was very popular there. The first trading post was built on a peninsula on the western side of the lake by Thomas Frobisher in 1776. Other forts were built there later by the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company, the lake being a strategic point in the western fur trade. Many references to the post are found in the narratives of the fur trade. Bib.: Atlas of Canada.

Île Royale. A large island in Lake Superior, on the United States side of the boundary, and included in the territory of the state of Michigan. Mentioned in Carver’s Travels and other early narratives. By the treaty of peace, 1783, the islands Royale and “Philippeau” belonged to the United States. When the international commission was running the line in 1822-1827, this latter island gave them a great deal of trouble. Mitchell’s and other early maps showed it as a large island near Île Royale, but no such island existed. The American commissioner tried unsuccessfully to prove that what was intended was a group of small islands near the Canadian shore. The British commissioner argued that the island was a myth, and that its supposed existence arose from the deceptive appearance of land in the direction assigned to the island. Another and more probable theory is that Île Royale having been seen independently from the north and the south, and laid down with separate names on different maps, came to be regarded as two separate islands. Bib.: Rand-McNally, Atlas of America.

Illinois Indians. Of Algonquian stock. Closely related to the Miami (q.v.). First mentioned in the Jesuit Relation of 1660 as living south-west of Green Bay. They ranged throughout the country between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, and down the west bank of that river as far as the Des Moines; and have been described by Allouez, Marquette, Hennepin, Rasles, and other early French explorers. They were the allies of the French against the Iroquois in the days of Frontenac. About 1724, indignant because the French were taking sides with their enemies the Foxes, they sent a delegation to France with Father Beaubois to plead their cause. Their eloquence and dignity made a deep impression in France. Harassed on one side by the Sioux and Foxes and on the other by the Iroquois, their numbers were reduced from six to eight thousand, at the end of the seventeenth century, to less than two thousand about 1750. The murder of Pontiac by one of their warriors brought upon them a war of extermination. To-day only a handful remain, in Oklahoma. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Immigration. During the French régime in Canada colonization was encouraged spasmodically by the crown, that being generally one of the obligations of the trading corporations, though not always one that was taken very seriously. See Company of New France; Company of Rouen and St. Malo, etc. The first immigrants in the British period were from New England, and became merchants in Montreal and Quebec, engaging largely in the fur trade. After them came the United Empire Loyalists, settling for the most part in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Upper Canada. Nova Scotia had also had earlier settlers both from Scotland and New England. Immigration was, at a later date, encouraged from the British Isles by the governments of Canada and the Maritime Provinces. In 1847 and 1848 a large number of Irish immigrants came to Canada, bringing the plague with them, resulting in a heavy mortality both among themselves and among others with whom they came in contact. At a considerably later period the Dominion government offered inducements for the settlement of desirable people from the continent of Europe, particularly from the northern countries, and from the United States. For foreign colonies in western Canada, see Doukhobors, Galicians, Mormons. For restrictive and other regulations, see Canada Year Book, 1922-1923, p. 98. Bib.: Whitton, Immigration Problems in Canada.

Imperial Conferences. First held in London, April, 1887. Canada was represented by Sir Alexander Campbell and Sandford Fleming. Among the questions discussed were those of inter-Imperial defence and trade, the Pacific cable, etc. A conference was held in Ottawa in 1894 (see Colonial Conference, 1894); and another in London in June, 1896, Canada being represented by Sir Mackenzie Bowell and Sandford Fleming. At an adjourned meeting in October, 1896, Sir Donald Smith and Hon. A. G. Jones represented the Dominion, Mr. Fleming being present in an advisory capacity. On the occasion of Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee, December, 1897, another conference was held in London, Joseph Chamberlain presiding, and the self-governing colonies being represented by their premiers. Again, in 1902, June-July, the colonial premiers met in London, under the presidency of Joseph Chamberlain. The London Conference of 1907, April 15th-May 14th, presided over by Lord Elgin, discussed various Imperial questions, but was chiefly memorable because of the decision to hold similar meetings every four years, and to provide a permanent bureau at London devoted specifically to the interests of the Empire. Conferences were held in London, May 23rd-June 20th, 1911; February 12th-May 15th, 1917; June 20th-August 5th, 1921; October, 1923. Bib.: See Canadian Annual Review.

Imperial Federation. Advocated by Thomas Pownall, governor of Massachusetts Bay, in 1764. He proposed a scheme by which “Great Britain may be no more considered as the Kingdom of this Isle alone, with many appendages of provinces, colonies, settlements, and other extraneous parts, but as a grand marine dominion, consisting of our possessions in the Atlantic and in America united into one Empire.” Subsequently proposed by Joseph Howe, in 1855, and again in 1863; also by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Edward Blake, Sir Charles Tupper, and other Canadian statesmen and writers. Lord Elgin had declared in 1847 that Imperial unity did not depend on the exercise of dominion, the dispensing of patronage, or the maintenance of an Imperial hotbed for forcing commerce and manufactures. Yet he conceived of an empire not confined to the British Isles, but growing, expanding, “strengthening itself from age to age, and drawing new supplies of vitality from virgin soils.” The Imperial Federation League was formed in Canada in 1885, and in 1896 the name was changed to British Empire League. See also Denison. Bib.: Denison, Struggle for Imperial Unity; Macphail, Essays in Politics; Brassey, Imperial Federation and Colonization; Ewart, Kingdom of Canada, Imperial Federation, etc.; Parkin, Imperial Federation; Young, A Pioneer of Imperial Federation in Canada; Milner, Speeches in Canada; The Empire and the Century; Argyll, Imperial Federation.

Imperial Federation League. Formed in Canada at a meeting in Montreal, in May, 1885. A conference to the same end had been held in London, in July, 1884. The league in Canada changed its name, in 1896, to the British Empire League in Canada, at the suggestion of Sir Charles Tupper. See Denison.

Indians. Contacts between White Man and Indian in Canadian history have been so numerous and varied that it is difficult even to suggest their character. They range in time from Jacques Cartier to the present day, and in place from Cape Breton and Labrador to Vancouver Island and the Yukon. The Indians have fought sometimes with and sometimes against both French and English in Canada. They have helped or hindered the labours of practically all Canadian explorers. Their history is closely interwoven with that of the fur trade, in both the French and British régimes. They have been the subject of missionary labours since the days of the Récollet and Jesuit fathers of New France. One gets more or less light on their character and personality in the narratives of such men as Champlain, Lescarbot and Charlevoix, LaSalle, Radisson and LaVérendrye, the Jesuit Relations, and later travellers and missionaries such as Carver, Henry, Mackenzie, Thompson, Hearne, Harmon, Paul Kane, DeSmet, Bishop Bompas, James Evans and Père Lacombe. See also under names of individual tribes. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Brinton, The American Race; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States; Catlin, Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians; Drake, Aboriginal Races of North America; Lafitau, Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains; Maclean, Canadian Savage Folk; Morgan, Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States.

Indian Tribes. See Abnaki; Algonquian; Assiniboine; Blackfeet; Caughnawaga; Cayuga; Chinook; Chipewyan; Chippewa; Cree; Creek; Delaware; Déné; Echemin; Erie; Fox; Haida; Huron; Illinois; Iroquois; Kootenay; Mandan; Mascoutcn; Menominee; Miami; Micmac; Mississagua; Mohawk; Montagnais; Neutral Nation; Nipissing; Oneida; Onondaga; Ottawa; Pottawotomi; Sauk; Seneca; Sioux; Tuscarora; Winnebago.

Inglis, Charles (1734-1816). Born in Ireland. Emigrated to America; taught school in Pennsylvania for a time, and then took holy orders. In 1764 became assistant to Dr. Auchmuty, rector of Trinity Church, New York, and in 1777 succeeded him as rector. His sympathies being with the mother country, removed to Nova Scotia after the Revolution, and thence to England. Returned and became first bishop of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over practically all British North America, 1787. One of the notable events of his episcopate was his establishment of King’s College, Windsor. In 1793 his huge diocese was divided by the creation of the diocese of Quebec, of which Jacob Mountain (q.v.) became first bishop. Bib.: Mockridge, The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfoundland; Sabine, Loyalists.

Institut Canadien. A literary and scientific society, founded at Montreal in 1844, and incorporated in 1852. It included among its early members most of the leaders of the more progressive and independent element in Quebec political life, among them A. A. Dorion, Eric Dorion, Joseph Doutre, Rodolphe Laflamme, and Wilfrid Laurier. The success of the parent society led to the founding of similar Instituts throughout the province. Although popular among the laity, these societies encountered the determined opposition of the Roman Catholic Church, led by Bishop Bourget of Montreal. The outside societies yielded to clerical pressure, but the Montreal Institut stood upon its rights. The fight went on for many years, but finally most of the Roman Catholic members dropped out, and the books and papers were transferred to the Fraser Institute. Bib.: Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

Intellectual Development. While a work of this kind is not the fitting place to describe in detail the intellectual development of the Canadian people, or to critically estimate the achievements or give the biographical particulars of those whose place in Canadian history has been purely intellectual, it would be equally improper to overlook the fact that an essential and tremendously important part of the history of Canada is the development of its intellectual life. Of the outstanding figures in Canadian literature, those who because of the value or character of their work may be regarded as having helped to mould Canadian character and Canadian life, these at least should be mentioned: Michel Bibaud (1782-1857) historian; Auguste Gosselin (1843-) historian; François-Xavier Garneau (1809-1866) historian; Octave Crémazie (1827-1879) poet; Pamphile LeMay (1837-1918) poet; Louis Fréchette (1839-1908) poet; Jean Baptiste Antoine Ferland (1805-1865) historian; William Chapman (1850-1917) poet; Henri Raymond Casgrain (1831-1904) historian; Antoine Gérin-Lajoie (1824-1882) historian and poet; Philippe Aubert de Gaspé (1786-1871) novelist; Benjamin Sulte (1841-1923) historian; Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796-1865) humorist and historian; James De Mille (1833-1880) novelist; Charles G. D. Roberts (1860-) poet and novelist; Bliss Carman (1861-) poet; Charles Heavysege (1816-1876) dramatist; Archibald Lampman (1861-1899) poet; William Wilfred Campbell (1860-1919) poet; William Kirby (1817-1906) novelist; Isabella Valency Crawford (1851-1887) poet; William Henry Drummond (1854-1906) poet; Emile Nelligan (1882-) poet; Albert Lozeau (1875-1924) poet; Paul Morin (1889-) poet; John McCrae (1872-1918) poet; Marjorie Pickthall (1883-1922) poet and novelist. Bib.: Baker, History of English-Canadian Literature to Confederation; Marquis, History of English-Canadian Literature (Canada and its Provinces); Edgar, English-Canadian Literature (Cambridge History of English Literature); MacMechan, Head-Waters of Canadian Literature; Logan, Highways of Canadian Literature; Lareau, Histoire de la littérature canadienne; Halden, Études de littérature canadienne française; Bourinot, Intellectual Development of the Canadian People.

Intendant. An office created originally by Richelieu, in France, and transferred to New France. The first intendant of Canada was Robert, appointed in 1663, who was succeeded two years later by the ablest occupant of the office, Jean Talon. The intendant was charged with the supervision of practically all the civil affairs of the colony, including the administration of justice, but his most important function, from the point of view of the court, was to act as a virtual spy upon the acts of the governor. Inevitably, harmony was impossible between these two officials, and the history of New France is punctuated with their perpetual quarrels. The intendants of New France were: Louis Robert, 1663; Jean Talon, 1665-1668; Claude de Bouteroue, 1668-1670: Jean Talon, 1670-1672; Jacques Duchesneau, 1675-1682; Jacques De Meulles, 1682-1686; Jean Bochart de Champigny, 1686-1702; François de Beauharnois, 1702-1705; Jacques and Antoine-Denis Raudot, 1705-1711; Michel Bégon, 1710-1726; Edmé Nicolas Robert, 1724; Guillaume de Chazelles, 1725; Claude Thomas Dupuy, 1726-1728; Gilles Hocquart, 1731-1748; François Bigot, 1748-1760. Bib.: Roy, Intendants de la Nouvelle France (R. S. C., 1903); Parkman, Old Régime; Munro, The Office of Intendant in New France in The American Historical Review, October, 1906.

Intercolonial Railway. In one form or another had been projected for many years. Recommended in Durham’s Report. A company was formed in London, 1845, and a survey made by Major Robinson, but nothing further done at the time. Surveys proposed by the government of Canada in 1863. Three engineers were to be appointed, one by the Imperial government, one by Canada, and one by the Maritime Provinces. They all nominated the same man, Sandford Fleming, by whom the surveys were accordingly carried out. Difficulty was experienced in selecting the route. Three were surveyed, one by the valley of the St. John, a second along the coast, and the third through the centre of New Brunswick. The second was finally selected, partly for political, partly for strategic reasons. The railway was made a condition of the union of the Maritime Provinces with Canada, and the work of construction was pushed forward, the line being formally opened July 1st, 1876. In 1871 the Prince Edward Island Railway was begun, and in 1873 it became a portion of the Intercolonial system. Other extensions and branches were built or acquired, the line finally running from Sydney and Halifax to Montreal. Now part of the Canadian National Railways (q.v.). Bib.: Fleming, The Intercolonial; Fleming, Historical Sketch of the Intercolonial Railway in Canada: An Ency., vol. 2; Bourinot, Lord Elgin; Longley, Joseph Howe; Hannay, Wilmot-Tilley; Skelton, The Railway Builders.

International Boundary Commission. Created, 1892, for the purpose of surveying and marking the international boundary between the Yukon and Alaska; and between other parts of Canada and the United States; and correcting certain inaccuracies in previous surveys. The work of the Commission was governed by the terms of the treaties of 1892, 1908 and 1910. The work of determining and mapping the boundary from its intersection with the St. Lawrence to the mouth of Pigeon river was entrusted by the treaty of 1908 to the International Waterways Commission. Consists of two members, one Canadian and the other American. Its work is now (1926) practically completed. Has issued various reports and maps from time to time. Earlier international boundary commissions were those constituted under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Articles of the treaty of Ghent; under the Sixth Article of the Ashburton treaty; and under the Alaska Boundary Convention. Their reports will be found in Treaties and Agreements affecting Canada, 1814-1913.

International Joint Commission. Created by the treaty of 1909 between Great Britain and the United States. Commission consists of six members, three appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Canadian government, and three by the president. Duplicate offices, each in charge of a secretary, in Ottawa and Washington. Commission has jurisdiction over cases involving the use of boundary waters between Canada and the United States. Also acts as an investigatory body under Article IX of the treaty; and under Article X has final jurisdiction over any question at issue between the two countries that may be referred to it by their governments. The Commission continues indefinitely, unless the treaty is denounced by one or other of the high contracting parties. It has investigated or settled a number of important problems, and has proved itself to be a very flexible and satisfactory means of solving international questions between two neighbouring nations. Has issued numerous orders, opinions and reports. Bib.: Burpee, The International Joint Commission.

International Joint High Commission. Met at Quebec, August-October, 1898, and at Washington from November into the following year. The British delegates were Baron Herschell, representing the British government, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Sir Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis Davies and John Charlton, representing Canada, and Sir James Winter and A. B. Morine representing Newfoundland; the United States members being Senator George Gray, Senator Charles W. Fairbanks, John A. Kasson, Nelson Dingley, General John W. Foster and T. Jefferson Coolidge. The Commission discussed a number of questions, the Alaska boundary, reciprocity, war vessels on the Great Lakes, the Bering Sea seal fisheries, the Atlantic Coast fisheries, shipments in bond, alien labour laws, etc., but finally failed to reach an agreement on any of them. The Alaska Boundary was felt to be too intricate and delicate a problem to be involved in other questions; no common basis seemed available in the matter of reciprocity; and failure in these directions brought with it failure in all the minor questions. Bib.: Tracy, Tercentenary History of Canada; Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier.

International Waterways Commission. Created by agreement between the governments of Canada and the United States in 1902, for the purpose of investigating and reporting upon various questions affecting the relations of the two countries along their common frontier. Consisted of six members, three appointed by the government of Canada and three by the president of the United States. Carried out a number of investigations, and published various reports. Among its principal recommendations was the creation of the International Joint Commission. Although it continued for several years after the constitution of that body for the purpose of completing the work upon which it was engaged, its period of service virtually ended with the signing of the treaty of 1909. Bib.: Compiled Reports of the International Waterways Commission.

Interprovincial Boundary Commissions. In 1871 the task of delimiting the northern and western boundaries of the province of Ontario was entrusted to two commissioners, one for the Dominion and the other for Ontario. The proposals of the Dominion commissioner being unsatisfactory to Ontario, correspondence followed between the Ontario and Dominion governments, and in 1874 it was agreed to refer the question to arbitration. The arbitrators were L. A. Wilmot for the Dominion and W. B. Richards for Ontario. The former died and the latter resigned, and were replaced by Sir Francis Hincks for Canada and R. A. Harrison for Ontario, who chose Sir Edward Thornton as the third arbitrator. In 1878 the case was argued, and the arbitrators unanimously agreed on an award materially extending the area of the province. The Dominion government delayed accepting the award, and in 1881 approved of an extension of the boundaries of Manitoba that complicated the situation. Quebec also took a hand in the matter by demanding an extension of her boundaries. The delay in settlement led to difficulties in the disputed territory between the people and officials of Manitoba and Ontario. In 1883 it was agreed to refer the question to the Judicial Committee of the Imperial Privy Council. The case was argued in 1884, and the Judicial Committee substantially confirmed the original award. In 1889 an Imperial Act was passed defining the boundaries between Ontario and Manitoba. Many years afterward the boundaries of all three provinces were extended north to Hudson Bay. In 1913 a commission was created to delimit the boundary between the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. This Commission has now completed its field work. Part I of its Report was issued in 1917 and Part II in 1924. Part III is to follow. See also Labrador Boundary. Bib.: Documents relating to the Boundaries of Ontario; Mills, Report on the Boundaries of Ontario; Lindsey, Report on the Boundaries of Ontario; Biggar, Sir Oliver Mowat; Report of Alberta-British Columbia Boundary Commission.

Interprovincial Conferences. The first conference of premiers or other representatives of the various provinces was held at Quebec in October, 1887. All the provincial premiers attended except the premier of British Columbia. Various questions of common interest were discussed, and resolutions adopted dealing with proposed amendments to the British North America Act. Since that date similar conferences have been held from time to time, in various cities of the Dominion.

Irish in Canada. Nicholas Flood Davin, in commenting upon a statement in an English magazine to the effect that the English and Scotch were the great pioneers of Canada, outside the French, says: “The Irishman was here as early as others; he fought against the wilderness as well as others; his arm was raised against the invading foe as well as that of others,” and he proceeds to show that in statesmanship and war, in literature and commerce, the Irish have held their own in Canada. Among them were Dorchester, Thomas Talbot, James FitzGibbon, Edward Blake, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, Robert Baldwin, Sir Francis Hincks, Dufferin. A painful incident was the Irish famine in the forties and the Irish immigrants that came out to Canada bringing the plague with them. By the census of 1921 there were 1,107,817 persons of Irish origin in Canada, out of a total population of 8,788,483. Bib.: Davin, The Irishman in Canada.

Iroquet. A chief of the Petite Nation and a leader of the Huron Indians. Urged Champlain to attack the Iroquois in 1603, and entered into an alliance with the French. He was a man of humane instincts. In 1615 he adopted a young Iroquois prisoner as his son instead of following the usual practice of burning him at the stake. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime.

Iroquois. A confederation of tribes, at first five, the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca, to which the Tuscarora was added after 1726, as well as the remnants of many other tribes. They were known to the English colonists as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations. They called themselves Oñgwanonsioñni, “we are of the extended lodge.” When they first came into contact with Europeans, they occupied the country between Lake Champlain and the Genesee river, and this remained their home territory, but they ranged far and wide, carrying their conquering raids eastwards to the Kennebec, westwards to Lake Michigan, north to the Hudson Bay watershed and south to the Tennessee. In the long periods of conflict between New England and New France they allied themselves as a rule with the English against the French. They were the enemies of the Hurons and Algonquians who were friendly to the French. Champlain attacked them first in 1609, thus laying the foundations of infinite trouble to the colony. Courcelles, Frontenac, La Barre, and other governors, sent expeditions against them, with varying success. At the end of the period of French rule they had come to be regarded and regarded themselves, as the traditional foes of the French. They fought on the British side in the War of 1812-1814. Obtained grant of land on the Grand river in Upper Canada. They numbered about 16,000 in 1677, and after dropping to 10,000 in the next century, they returned to their original strength at the opening of the twentieth century. About two-thirds are on reservations in Canada; the remainder in New York. See Senecas; Mohawks; Onondagas; Cayugas; Oneidas; Caughnawagas. Also Champlain; Frontenac; Courcelles; La Barre; Brock; Brant. Bib.: Hodge, Handbook of American Indians; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes; Morgan, League of the Iroquois; Colden, History of the Five Nations; McKenzie, The Six Nations Indians in Canada; Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites; Parkman, Old Régime, Jesuits in North America, Frontenac and Half-Century of Conflict; Fiske, New France and New England.

Irving, Jacob Æmilius (1797-1856). Born at Charleston, South Carolina. Entered the army at an early age; severely wounded at Waterloo; presented with freedom of Liverpool for gallant conduct during the French war. Came to Canada, 1834; served during the Rebellion of 1837; appointed first warden for the district of Simcoe; and to the Legislative Council of Canada, 1843. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Irving, Paulus Æmilius (1714-1796). Served under Wolfe at Quebec; administered government of Canada, 1765; appointed lieutenant-governor of Guernsey, 1771; and afterwards governor of Upnor Castle, Kent. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

Isbister, Alexander K. (1820-1883). Born in the territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company; employed by the Company, 1838-1840, in the Mackenzie river district. Went to England, about 1841; educated there, and practised law in London. A half-breed himself, he ably pressed the cause of the Indians and half-breeds upon the attention of the British government. Also gave evidence before the parliamentary Committee of 1857. Suggested annexation by Canada of western territory. For some years master of the Stationers’ School in England and Dean of the College of Preceptors. Left a large sum of money to found scholarships in connection with the University of Manitoba. Bib.: Report on Hudson’s Bay Company, 1857; Bryce, Hudson’s Bay Company.

Isle aux Noix. On the Richelieu river. A fort built originally by the French. Captured by Haviland in 1760. Reconstructed by Haldimand in 1778. Known as Fort Lennox. Loyalists from the revolting colonies had been sheltered there in 1775. Strengthened in 1812. Now preserved as a national memorial. Bib.: McIlwraith, Sir Frederick Haldimand.

Israel’s Poort. Battle in the South African War, April 25th, 1900. The Canadians were engaged, under Colonel Otter. After an advance over the open veldt, where they were subjected to the galling fire of Boer sharpshooters, they rushed the high bald kopje which the enemy held in force, and drove them from it at the point of the bayonet. Otter was severely wounded, and there were a number of other casualties. Bib.: Canada in the Great World War, vol. 1.

Jack, William Brydone (1819-1886). Born in Scotland. Educated at St. Andrew’s University. Came to New Brunswick as professor of mathematics at King’s College, 1840. When King’s College received its charter as University of New Brunswick in 1861, appointed president. Retired from office, 1885. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Jackson, Sir Richard Downes. Served in Peninsular campaign; commander-in-chief of forces in Canada. Administrator for Lower Canada, 1839; and 1841-1842; after the death of Sydenham, for all Canada. Died at Montreal. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.

James Bay. Southern extension of Hudson Bay, discovered in 1610 by Henry Hudson who wintered there, 1610-1611, with the Discovery. The bay was named after Captain Thomas James (1593-1635?) of Bristol, who explored the west coast in 1631. It is about 350 miles long by about 125 miles wide, and very shallow. Rupert House, Moose Factory, Fort Albany, Fort George, and East Main, Hudson’s Bay Company posts, are on its shores. Bib.: Atlas of Canada; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Jameson, Anna Brownell (1794-1860). Married Robert Simpson Jameson (q.v.). She wrote very entertainingly, and her sketches of life in Upper Canada throw an important light on a very interesting period of Canadian history. Bib.: Works: Diary of an Ennuyée; Characteristics of Women; Visits and Sketches; Essays; Sacred and Legendary Art; Legends of the Madonna; History of Our Lord; Early Italian Painters; Sketches in Canada; Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada. For biog., see Dent, Can. Por.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Read, Lives of the Judges.

Jameson, Robert Simpson. A member of the English bar. Reporter in Lord Eldon’s Court, 1824. Married Anna Brownell Murphy, 1826. Judge in the Island of Dominica, 1829; retired, 1833, and returned to England. Appointed attorney-general of Upper Canada by the Imperial government, 1833, and took up his residence at York. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1833. Member of the Assembly, 1835-1837. Appointed vice-chancellor of the Court of Equity. Died in Toronto, 1854. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

Jarvis, Edward James (1789-1852). His father was a grantee of St. John, arriving there in 1783. Became a member of the House of Assembly. The son was a member of the Executive Council of New Brunswick, and afterwards chief-justice of Prince Edward Island, 1828-1852. Bib.: Sabine, Loyalists.

Jay’s Treaty. Between Great Britain and the United States; negotiated November 19th, 1794. Provided for the evacuation by Great Britain of the western posts; the settlement by commission of pecuniary claims between the two countries; the appointment of a joint commission to determine the identity of the St. Croix river; and closer commercial relations. Negotiated by John Jay on behalf of the United States, and Lord Granville representing Great Britain. Bib.: Hertslet, Treaties and Conventions; Pope, Treaties with the United States affecting Canada.

Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826). Third president of the United States. He wrote in 1812: “The acquisition of Canada as far as Quebec will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack on Halifax and the final expulsion of England from this continent.” The purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803, and the sending of Lewis and Clark on their overland expedition to the Columbia in 1804-1806, for both of which he was mainly responsible, were to have far-reaching consequences so far as Canada was concerned. Bib.: His Works, ed. by Henry A. Washington, were published by order of Congress, in 9 vols., 1853. See also Randolph, Memoirs, Correspondence and Miscellanies of Jefferson. For biog., see Randall, Life of Jefferson; Tucker, Life of Thomas Jefferson; Parton, Life of Thomas Jefferson; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Jervis, John. See St. Vincent.

Jesuit Relations. The Relations were published originally in Paris, by the provincial of the order, in small annual volumes. The original narratives were written in Canada, or in one or other of the remote mission fields, by the devoted missionaries, and are invaluable as a record of the condition and character of the various Indian tribes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They have been used extensively by Parkman, Rochemonteix, and a host of other historians, old and new, in both languages. Bib.: Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 1610-1791, ed. by Thwaites, Cleveland, 1896-1901, 73 vols.; Relations des Jésuites, Quebec, 1858, 3 vols.

Jesuits. The first missionaries of the order, Lalemant, Massé, and Brébeuf, arrived in Canada in 1625. Work among the Algonquians began that year; and among the Hurons in 1626. The mission to the Iroquois dates from 1642. With the Iroquois mission are particularly associated the names of Jogues, Le Moyne, Ragueneau, Frémin, and De Carheil; and with the mission to the Hurons, those of Brébeuf, Lalemant, Chabanel, Gamier, and Chaumonot. Splendid examples of devotion to their religious ideals in carrying Christianity to the Indians, they also did much praiseworthy work among their own countrymen in New France in the cause of education and higher moral standards. With the civil and military authorities their relations were not always happy, because their ideals did not always harmonize with the practical theories of the politicians and traders. In November, 1925, the relics of Brébeuf, Lalemant and Garnier were solemnly removed from the chapel of the Hotel-Dieu in Quebec to the Jesuit chapel. See also Albanel; Allouez; Aulneau; Biard; Boniface; Brébeuf; Bressani; Bruyas; Buteux; Carheil; Chabanel; Chaumonot; Crespieul; Dablon; Dalmas; Daniel; Druillettes; Frémin; Garnier, C.; Garnier, J.; Garreau; Guignas; Jogues; Lalemant, C.; Lalemant, G.; Lalemant, J.; Lamberville, John; Lamberville, James; Laure; Le Jeune; Le Moyne; Massé; Maret; Marquette; Ménard; Millet; Noüe; Pierron; Poncet; Raffeix; Ragueneau; Rale; Sylvie. Bib.: Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, ed. by Thwaites; Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Rochemonteix, Les Jésuites et la Nouvelle France; Kip, Early Jesuit Missions; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America; Harris, Pioneers of the Cross in Canada; Marquis, The Jesuit Missions.

Jesuits Estates Act. Passed by the Legislature of Quebec, 1888. The issue was one of long standing. “During the last years of the French régime in Canada,” says Dr. Skelton, in his Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, “the Jesuits throughout the world were falling on evil days; one Catholic sovereign after another, alarmed by their political intrigues and their growth in wealth and assertiveness, expelled them from his dominions.” Early in the period of British rule in Canada proposals had been made for suppressing the order and confiscating its estates. In 1791 the order was suppressed, and in 1800 after the death of the last surviving Canadian member, the crown took over the estates. In 1831 the estates were conveyed to the province of Canada for educational purposes. At Confederation they passed to the province of Quebec. Pope Clement XIV had suppressed the order in 1773; but Pius VII had restored them in 1814; in 1842 they were invited back to Canada by Bishop Bourget, and became a teaching order. Honoré Mercier, premier of Quebec, in 1887 introduced a bill to incorporate the Society of Jesus; and the following year gave them $400,000 as compensation for the ancient estates. A popular outcry followed in Ontario, which crystalized in a demand for disallowance by the Dominion Parliament. The question was debated in 1889, Sir John Macdonald refused to countenance disallowance, and the government was sustained. One of the by-products of the controversy was the establishment of the Equal Rights Association (q.v.). Bib.: Skelton, Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier; Pope, The Day of Sir John Macdonald; Legendre, Honoré Mercier (Canadian Men of the Day); Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier; Grant and Hamilton, Principal Grant.

Jetté, Sir Louis (1836-1920). Studied law, and called to the bar, 1857. Practised in Montreal. Entered public life in 1872 as member for Montreal East, defeating Sir Georges É. Cartier. He was one of the founders of the Parti National. Appointed puisne judge of Supreme Court of Quebec, 1878; and the same year became professor of civil law in Laval University; later dean of the faculty. Member of the commission for revision of the civil code of Quebec, 1887; and of the Alaskan Boundary Commission. Appointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1898, and for a second term in 1903. Chief-justice of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1909. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Jogues, Isaac (1607-1646). Born at Orleans, France. Entered the Society of Jesus, was for a time professor in the college of Rouen, and sailed for Canada in 1636. Set out almost immediately for the Huron mission. From there sent to the Tobacco nation. In 1641 visited the Chippewas at Sault Ste. Marie, and stood upon the shores of Lake Superior. Went to Quebec the following year, and on the return journey was captured by a party of Mohawks and carried off to the Iroquois country. After being repeatedly tortured, escaped to Fort Orange, with the help of the Dutch governor, and sailed for France, arriving at Rennes in 1643. After an interview with the queen regent, Anne of Austria, returned to Canada the following year, and sent as an ambassador to the Mohawks, 1646. Concluded a treaty of peace, and returned to Quebec. September 27th of the same year, again set out for the Iroquois country, this time as a missionary. The attitude of the Indians had changed, and on October 18th he was tomahawked as he entered one of the lodges at Tionnontoguen. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America; Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Martin, Isaac Jogues; Withrow, Adventures of Isaac Jogues (R. S. C., 1885).

Johnson, Guy (1740-1788). Born in Ireland, he came to America, acted as deputy to his uncle Sir William Johnson as superintendent of Indian affairs, and succeeded latter in office after his death. Married his daughter. Served under Amherst against the French, in 1759. At the opening of the Revolutionary War, abandoned his home in Amsterdam, New York, and brought his family to Montreal, and later went to England. Returned in 1776, and served in New York. Also with Brant in the Mohawk valley, two years later. His estates confiscated by the New York Assembly, 1779. Retired to London, 1783, and died there. Bib.: Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Johnson, John M. (1818-1868). Solicitor-general of New Brunswick 1855; postmaster-general in the Fisher ministry 1857; attorney-general 1864 and delegate to Quebec Conference; represented New Brunswick at the London Conference on Confederation. Bib.: Hannay, History of New Brunswick.

Johnson, Sir John (1742-1830). Son of Sir William Johnson (q.v.). Appointed major-general of militia, 1774, and served with the loyal forces. Fled to Canada, 1776, and served under St. Leger against Arnold the following year. Twice raided the Mohawk valley in 1780. After the close of the Revolutionary War became superintendent-general of Indian affairs in British North America, but was disappointed in not being made the first governor of Upper Canada. Died at Montreal. Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Myers, The Tories or Loyalists in America.

Johnson, Sir William (1715-1774). Born in Ireland. Came to America, in 1738, to take charge of the estates of his uncle, Sir Peter Warren. Appointed Indian agent in 1744, and obtained unrivalled influence over the Six Nations. In 1755 became superintendent of the affairs of the Six Nations. The same year made major-general and commander-in-chief of the expedition against the French. Defeated Dieskau at Lake George, and received the thanks of Parliament, a baronetcy, and a vote of £5,000. Served with Abercromby in 1758, and in 1759 captured Niagara from the French. Accompanied Amherst to Montreal in 1760, and led an expedition to Detroit the following year. Negotiated the treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Indians in 1768. Mainly instrumental in settling and developing the Mohawk valley. Died at his home “Johnson Hall.” Bib.: Language, Customs and Manners of the Six Nations (Phil. Soc. of Phila. Trans., 1772); Correspondence (Doc. Hist. N. Y.); Reid, Story of Old Fort Johnson. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.; Stone, Life of Sir William Johnson; Buell, Sir William Johnson; Flick, Papers of Sir William Johnson; Bradley, The Fight with France; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, and Conspiracy of Pontiac; Cyc. Am. Biog.; Sabine, Loyalists.

Johnston, John (1763-1828). Born at Craignear, Giant’s Causeway, Ireland. Came to America in 1792 and entered the fur trade. He was stationed for a time at Chequamegon, on the south shore of Lake Superior, where he married the daughter of a prominent Chippewa chief. In 1794 he established himself at Sault Ste. Marie, where he built a comfortable home with a fine library and more of the comforts of civilization than were usual at that then remote spot. One of his daughters married Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. In the War of 1812-1814 he took an active part on the British side; led a party of his employees to the defence of Michilimackinac. During his absence his property was burned by the Americans and his goods confiscated. After the war he rebuilt his home and spent the rest of his days there. Received General Lewis Cass there in 1820. Bib.: An Account of Lake Superior (Masson, Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest); Wis. Hist. Coll., xix.

Johnstone, Chevalier. Aide-de-camp to Lévis in the Battle of the Plains. He was a Scottish Jacobite serving on the French side. His Memoirs throw a very interesting light on the campaign as seen from the French side. The Memoirs were translated by C. Winchester, and published in Aberdeen in 1871. A copy of the French original is in the Public Archives of Canada. Bib.: Doughty, Siege of Quebec.

Johnstone, James William (1793-1873). Born in Jamaica. Came to Nova Scotia, studied law in Annapolis, and practised in Kentville and Halifax. Appointed solicitor-general, 1834; a member of the Executive and Legislative Councils, 1838; and became the recognized leader of the Conservative party in Nova Scotia. Opposed Joseph Howe’s views that ministers must be responsible to the Assembly alone. Held that there must be a dual responsibility, to the governor and to the Legislature. Took a deep interest in the establishment of the Baptist College, Acadia, and defended the idea of denominational education. He himself had originally been a member of the Church of England, but had left it and joined the Baptists. Resigned his seat in the Council in 1843 to contest Annapolis for the Assembly, and represented the county until 1864. From 1843 to 1847 he was virtually premier of the province, though that office was not yet definitely recognized. He was successful in putting through the Assembly a number of important bills, including one providing for simultaneous polling at general elections. He anticipated the National Policy of Sir John Macdonald in a resolution he introduced into the Assembly in 1847: “Resolved that the policy Nova Scotia requires is that the duties levied for the purpose of revenue should be regulated by such a tariff as will afford for us a high practical encouragement to the productions and industries of this country.” He believed it to be the true policy to lay duties so as to answer the double purpose of revenue and protection of home industries. “Could we enjoy free trade in its proper sense I have no doubt it would be best for Nova Scotia; but so long as the United States of America place our exports under burdensome and almost prohibitive duties, it is absurd to talk of free trade.” His party was defeated in the elections of 1847. Three years later attended the railway convention at Portland, for the purpose of promoting a railway to connect Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with the railway system of the United States. In 1853 opposed Howe’s proposal of governmental construction of railways, as he believed it to be more economical to have them built by private interests. Advocated Confederation of the British North American colonies in the Assembly, 1854. In 1857 Howe was defeated in the Assembly, and Johnstone formed an administration, taking the attorney-generalship himself, with Charles Tupper as provincial secretary. His government was defeated in 1860. Three years later he again carried the province, and once more took the office of attorney-general with the premiership. Finally retired from political life in 1864, to accept the office of judge in equity. On the death of Howe in 1873 made lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. Died in England the same year. Bib.: Saunders, Three Premiers of Nova Scotia; Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia; Rattray, The Scot in British North America; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.; Longley, Joseph Howe.

Joint High Commission, British-American, 1898-1899. See International Joint High Commission.

Jolliet, Louis (1645-1700). Born at Quebec; son of a wagon-maker in the employ of the Company of New France. Educated by the Jesuits, and took minor orders, but renounced his clerical vocation to engage in the fur trade. Sent by Talon to discover copper mines on Lake Superior, and met La Salle on his return journey, 1669, near the site of the city of Hamilton. In 1673 set out with Jacques Marquette (q.v.) to discover the Mississippi. Leaving Michilimackinac on May 17th, they coasted the north shore of Lake Michigan, to the foot of Green Bay, ascended Fox river to Lake Winnebago, and descended the Wisconsin to the Mississippi, which they reached a month after leaving Michilimackinac. Descended the great river, passing the mouths of the Illinois, Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas, and turned back from a village of the Arkansas Indians on July 17th; returning to Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois. Jolliet was unfortunate enough to lose the records of his journey at the foot of the Lachine rapids, almost within sight of Montreal. Made a journey to Hudson Bay in 1679; and the following year received a grant of the Island of Anticosti, where he settled with his family. In 1694 explored the coast of Labrador. On his return made royal pilot for the St. Lawrence, and hydrographer of the colony. Bib.: Parkman, La Salle; Faillon, Colonie Française en Canada; Margry, Découvertes et Etablissements des Français; Gagnon, Louis Jolliet. See also Marquette.

Joly de Lotbinière, Sir Henri Gustave (1829-1903). Studied law and called to the bar, 1855. Elected to Assembly for Lotbinière, 1861. Took a prominent part in opposition to Confederation. In 1867 elected for both Dominion and Quebec Houses, and sat in both up to 1874. Led Opposition in Assembly until 1878, when he was called upon to form a ministry. His government defeated in 1879, and in 1885 he dropped out of public life for a time. Returned for Portneuf in 1896, to the House of Commons, and became controller of inland revenue; the following year called to the Cabinet as minister of inland revenue. Appointed lieutenant-governor of British Columbia, 1900. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Jones, Alfred Gilpin (1824-1906). Born at Weymouth, Nova Scotia, of United Empire Loyalist stock. Built up great shipping industry at Halifax. Entered public life as an opponent of Confederation, and for a time led the anti-Confederate party in Nova Scotia. Represented Halifax in Dominion House, 1867-1872, 1874-1878. Became minister of militia, 1878. Defeated in general election of that year, and again in 1881; elected in 1887, but defeated in 1891. Lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia, 1900-1906. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Jones, Jonas (1791-1848). Educated at Cornwall under John Strachan. Served as an officer of militia during the War of 1812-1814, attaining the rank of colonel. Called to the bar of Upper Canada, 1815. Elected to the Assembly for Leeds and Grenville, 1821, 1825, and again in 1832. A strong supporter of the union of Upper and Lower Canada. Appointed a puisne judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench, 1837. Bib.: Read, Lives of the Judges.

Juan de Fuca. A Greek sailor and explorer. His real name is said to have been Apostolus Velerianos. He was a native of Cephalonia. He has been credited with leading, in the service of the viceroy of Mexico, an expedition by water in 1592, in which he explored the west coast of North America, and discovered the strait now known by his name. The story is, however, discredited. The strait was named by Captain Charles William Barkley, who was off the entrance in 1787, in honour of the supposed original discoverer. Cook missed the strait in 1778. Vancouver sailed up it in 1792. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Judah, Henry Hague (1808-1883). Born in London, England. Came to Canada, and called to the bar, 1829. Represented Champlain in the Assembly, 1843-1844. Appointed one of the Commissioners under the Act, abolishing the Seigniorial Tenure, 1854.

Judges. See Chief Justices. Bib.: Buchan, Bench and Bar of Lower Canada; Riddell, Legal Profession in Upper Canada; Audet, Canadian Historical Dates and Events.

Kaeble, Joseph. Corporal, 22nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. In charge of a Lewis gun section, at Neuville Vitasse, June 9th, 1918. With his entire section, except one, casualties, and fifty of the enemy advancing toward his post, he jumped over the parapet with his Lewis gun and, although repeatedly wounded, held the enemy in check, until finally he fell back into the parapet mortally wounded, but still cheering his wounded comrades to keep up the fight.

Kalm, Peter. A Swedish naturalist, who visited Canada in 1749, and recorded his impressions in a book subsequently published, Journey to North America, which ran through many editions and was translated into English and other languages. Kalm had studied botany at Uppsala University under the famous naturalist Linnæus. His narrative is interesting as one of the very few recording a visit to Canada during the French régime. Among other experiences Kalm met La Vérendrye, the western explorer, in Quebec, and tells of a conversation he had with him.

Kaministiquia or Kaministikwia. At mouth of river of the same name, north-west shore of Lake Superior. Fort built by Zacharie Robutel de La Noüe, in 1717. DuLhut is said to have built a post here in 1678, and Radisson must have passed the spot in 1662. La Vérendrye wintered there in 1731 while making preparations for his western explorations. The site, as well as the portage route to Rainy lake, was abandoned in favour of Grand Portage. When the old route was reopened at the end of the eighteenth century, and a new post built at the mouth of the river, it was at first known as Fort Kaministiquia. The name was later changed to Fort William. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Kaministikwia River. Rises in Dog lake and after a tortuous course of sixty miles empties into Thunder bay of Lake Superior. The Kakabeka falls are about thirty miles above the mouth of the river. La Noüe built a trading post at the mouth in 1717, and ascended the river to the height of land and down to Rainy lake. This portage route was used for a time; abandoned by La Vérendrye and his successors for the Grand Portage route (q.v.), which was the main fur trade thoroughfare to the west for many years; until, finally, the Kaministikwia route was rediscovered by Roderick McKenzie in 1798, which led to the establishment of Fort William at the mouth of the river in 1801. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Kamloops. Town on the Thompson river in British Columbia. Fort Thompson was established here about 1811, and the name was afterwards changed to Fort Kamloops. Post of the North West Company. Alexander Ross describes it in his book The Fur Hunters, as it was in 1814 and 1815. He was in charge there for several years. It was the scene of the murder by Indians in 1841 of Samuel Black, who had succeeded to the command of the post some years after the union of the North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. His predecessors had been John McLeod and Ermatinger. John Todd succeeded Black, and he in turn was followed by Paul Fraser, a son of Simon Fraser. As a result of the gold rush and the building of the Cariboo Road a village grew up at Kamloops, and in 1885 the Canadian Pacific Railway reached the town. It was incorporated as a city in 1893. Bib.: Wade, The Thompson Country.

Kananaskis Pass. Named by Captain Palliser in 1863 after a legendary Indian. Palliser crossed the pass in 1858 and descended Palliser river to the Kootenay. He had learned of the existence of the pass in 1848 from a half-breed named James Sinclair, who had been through the mountains by that route. This is now known as South Kananaskis pass, elevation 7,439 feet above sea level. North Kananaskis pass, 7,682 feet, is a few miles distant. Bib.: Alb. and B. C. Boundary Com. Rep.

Kane, Paul (1810-1871). Born in Ireland. Came to Toronto with his parents. Received his first training under Drury, the drawing-master of Upper Canada College. Spent the years 1836-1840 in the United States; and then sailed for Europe, where he studied art in Italy and elsewhere on the continent. Returned to Toronto in 1845, and shortly after set out on a tour of the western territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Visited many of the tribes, from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and brought back with him in 1848 several hundred sketches, from which he painted a series of oil pictures of Indian life and western scenery, most of which are now in the Royal Museum of Archæology in Toronto. Some years after, published a narrative of this journey, illustrated from his own sketches. Bib.: Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America; new edition with Introduction and Notes by Burpee. For biog., see Morgan, Cel. Can.; Cyc. Am. Biog.; MacMurchy, Canadian Literature.

Kaskaskia. Indian village and French settlements on the Mississippi at the mouth of Kaskaskia river, and some miles below St. Louis. Fort Chartres stood close by. See map of settlements in Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii. Another settlement on opposite side of the Mississippi, dating from 1735, was known as Ste. Geneviève. St. Philippe on the Kaskaskia side was founded in 1720. See also Fort Chartres; Cahokia. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Kaufmann, Mount. In Canadian Rockies. Height, 10,200 feet. First climbed by Sir James Outram in 1902, and named by him after the famous Swiss guide who made so many first ascents in the Rocky mountains. Bib.: Outram, In the Heart of the Canadian Rockies.

Keefer, Thomas Coltrin (1821-1915). Born at Thorold, Ontario. Engaged in the enlargement of the Welland Canal, 1841-1845, and then transferred to the Ottawa river works, 1845-1849. Made a survey of the St. Lawrence rapids, 1850; and prepared the report and plans which resulted in the building of the Victoria bridge at Montreal. Instrumental in securing the deepening of the St. Lawrence channel and the adoption of the standard gauge on Canadian railways. Served as Canadian commissioner at the London exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the Paris exhibition of 1878, and also on the International Deep Waterways Commission. Author of a number of articles and papers on engineering and public questions. Bib.: Works: Philosophy of Railways; Canals of Canada; Report on Victoria Bridge; Canadian Watenways. See also Bourinot’s bibliography (R. S. C., 1894). For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; Dent, Can. Por.

Keewatin. In both Cree and Chippewa means “the north wind.” Originally a part of Rupert’s Land of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Annexed to Canada in 1869. Created a district in 1876. As originally understood, its territory is now partly in Ontario and partly in Manitoba. Since 1920 it has been defined as the region north of Manitoba and between long. 102° and Hudson Bay. Bib.: Atlas of Canada.

Kellsey, Henry. Explorer. In the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company at Fort Nelson in 1688, when instructions were given to send him to Churchill river. In 1690 he left Fort Nelson, at the mouth of the river of that name, with instructions to travel to the country of the remoter Indians and invite them to come down and trade at the Company’s posts on Hudson Bay. He returned in 1692, and wrote a narrative of his journey, which was printed in the Hudson’s Bay Report, 1749. The narrative is somewhat vague, but it seems probable that Kellsey travelled south-west to the Saskatchewan, then south over the plains west of Lakes Winnipeg and Winnipegosis to the Assiniboine, where he met a party of Mandan Indians from the Missouri. He was deputy governor of York Factory, or Fort Nelson, in 1697 when it was taken by the French under Iberville, and became governor of the fort some time after 1713. In 1719 he commanded an expedition to explore the north-west coast of Hudson Bay. Bib.: Burpee, Search for the Western Sea.

Kemp, Sir Edward (1858-). A delegate to the sixth Commercial Congress of the Empire in 1906. Represented East Toronto in House of Commons, 1900-1908 and 1911-1921. Minister without portfolio in Borden government, 1911; chairman of War Purchasing Commission, 1915; minister of militia and defence, 1916; minister of overseas military forces, 1917-1919. Minister without portfolio in Meighen government, 1920. Called to the Senate, 1921. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Kempt, Sir James (1764-1854), Commanded brigade in Peninsula, 1812; and division at Waterloo, 1815; governor of Nova Scotia, 1820-1828; and governor of Canada, 1828-1830. Made a report to the Home government in 1829 on the political situation in Lower Canada, his recommendations being designed to bring the Assembly into closer relations with the government. Made a privy councillor, 1830; master-general of ordnance, 1834-1838; general, 1841, Bib.: Morgan, Cel. Can.; Dict. Nat. Biog.; Christie, History of Lower Canada.

Kendrick, Captain John. American seaman. Trading on North-West Coast, 1787-1793. Killed in Sandwich Islands, 1793. He has been credited with the discovery or rediscovery of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Coast Names.

Kennedy, Sir Arthur Edward (1810-1883). Governor of Vancouver Island, 1863-1867. Subsequently governor of Queensland. Died in Brisbane. Bib.: Coats and Gosnell, Sir James Douglas.

Kennedy, William Nassau (1839-1885). Born at Darlington, Ontario. Served as a lieutenant in the Ontario Rifles with the Red River Expedition, 1870. Settled in Winnipeg, and appointed registrar of deeds, 1872. A member of the North-West Council, 1873; mayor of Winnipeg, 1875-1876. Organized the Winnipeg Field Battery and subsequently colonel of the 90th Rifles. Accompanied the Canadian Voyageurs to Egypt, as paymaster of the contingent, 1885. Served through the campaign, but died at London on his way home to Canada. Bib.: Begg, History of the North-West.

Kenny, Sir Edward (1800-1891). Born in Kerry county, Ireland. Emigrated to Nova Scotia. Summoned to the Senate at Confederation. Became receiver-general in federal ministry, 1867-1869; president of the Privy Council, 1869-1870. For a time acting lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. Vacated his seat in the Senate, 1876. Bib.: Pope, Sir John Macdonald.

Kent and Strathern, Edward Augustus, Duke of (1767-1820). Fourth son of George III and father of Queen Victoria. Sent to Canada, 1791, in command of 7th Fusiliers in garrison at Quebec. Visited Simcoe at Navy Hall. Kent House, above Montmorency Falls, was his home while stationed at Quebec. John Lambert in his Travels says that the duke was very popular with the French Canadians. Served in West Indies, 1794. Returned to Canada, 1796, and was for several years stationed at Halifax. Haliburton wrote a remarkable sketch of the ruins of his home near there, Kent Lodge. Commander-in-chief of forces in British North America, 1799-1800; governor of Gibraltar, 1802-1803; field-marshal, 1805. In 1814 he suggested a plan for the federation of the colonies of British North America. Prince Edward Island was named after him. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.; Anderson, Life of Edward, Duke of Kent.

Kerr, George Fraser. Lieutenant 3rd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. For most conspicuous bravery and leadership during the Bourlon Wood operations, 27th September, 1918. Inspired his men in a difficult situation, and when the advance was held up, he, far in advance of his company, rushed the enemy’s position single-handed and captured four machine-guns and thirty-one prisoners.

Kerr, John Chipman. Private 49th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. During a bombing attack, 16th September, 1916, at Courcelette, although wounded at the time, he ran along the parados under very heavy fire until in close contact with the enemy, then opened fire on them at point-blank range. They, thinking that they were surrounded, surrendered; sixty-two prisoners were taken, and two hundred and fifty yards of enemy trench captured.

Kicking Horse Pass. Through Rocky mountains, north of lat. 51°, length 104 miles, and elevation at watershed 5,300 feet. This pass is followed by the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It was explored and named by Dr. Hector, of the Palliser Expedition, in 1858, or rather the river was so named, because Hector had been kicked by his horse on its banks. Bib.: Alb. and B. C. Boundary Com. Rep.

Killaly, H. H. Represented town of London in first Parliament after the union of 1841; chairman of the board of public works, 1841-1844, and 1844-1846. Bib.: Dent, Last Forty Years.

King Christian Island. See Findlay Island.

King George’s Sound Company. Organized in 1785 by Richard Cadman Etches and other British traders on the north-west coast of America, for the purpose of carrying on a trade in furs between the west coast and China. They obtained a license from the South Sea Company, and another from the East India Company. Purchased a ship of 320 tons and a “snow” of 200 tons, Nathaniel Portlock (q.v.) being put in command of the larger vessel and George Dixon of the smaller. The vessels were named King George and Queen Charlotte. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Place Names.

King Island. In Fitzhugh Sound, coast of British Columbia. Named by Vancouver in 1793 after his friend Captain James King, (1750-1784), with whom he had served as a midshipman in the Discovery. King sailed with Cook in 1776, was with him at the time of his death, and subsequently assisted in preparing his Journal for publication. King Pass, Nootka Sound, also named after him. Bib.: Walbran, British Columbia Place Names.

King, Richard (1811-1876). Arctic traveller and ethnologist. He accompanied Back as surgeon and naturalist in 1833-1835; and also was assistant surgeon of the Austin expedition, 1850-1851. He was “the only Arctic authority who urged that search be made at the mouth of Backs river—where their remains were ultimately found—for the survivors of the Franklin expedition.” Bib.: Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833-1835; White, Place Names in Northern Canada.

King, William. He was the moving spirit in a negro settlement in the valley of the Thames in Upper Canada. He had formerly lived in Louisiana, freed his own slaves there and brought them to Canada. Bib.: Lewis, George Brown.

King William Island. North of Adelaide Peninsula, Arctic coast of Canada. Named by John Ross, 1830, after King William IV. Amundsen sailed around it in his voyage of 1903-1906. Bib.: Atlas of Canada.

King, William Lyon Mackenzie (1874-). Grandson of William Lyon Mackenzie through his mother. Born Berlin, (now Kitchener), Ontario. Educated Universities of Toronto, Chicago and Harvard. Deputy minister of Labour, 1900-1908. Represented Canadian government in negotiations with British government and government of India, on immigration matters. One of British delegates on International Opium Commission, 1909. Elected to House of Commons for North Waterloo, 1908. Minister of labour in Laurier government, 1909-1911. Engaged in investigation of industrial relations for Rockefeller Foundation, 1914-1917. Elected for Prince, Prince Edward Island, 1919, and for North York, 1921. Became prime minister of Canada, 1921. An Imperial Privy Councillor the same year. Bib.: Industry and Humanity. For biog., see Lewis, Mackenzie King.

King William’s War. Between England and France, 1689-1697. Incidents in North America were the raids by French and Indians on the frontier settlements of New England and Sir William Phipps’ capture of Port Royal and repulse at Quebec. During the war, 1691, Nova Scotia was granted by William and Mary to the Massachusetts Bay Company. War ended by treaty of Ryswick (q.v.).

Kingdom of Canada. First proposed by Dr. John Strachan in a communication to the British government in 1824. Sir Joseph Pope, in his Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald, says that the Conservative leader was intent upon founding a kingdom in Canada, and quotes a letter from Macdonald to Lord Knutsford, July 18th, 1889, in which it is stated that in the Canadian draft of the British North America bill the title of the new commonwealth was “The Kingdom of Canada,” but that it was changed to “Dominion of Canada” at the instance of Lord Derby, then foreign minister, who feared the former name would wound the sensibilities of the Americans. Macdonald, says Pope, looked upon Confederation as “affording an opportunity for consolidating and strengthening British rule upon this continent,” and made every effort to retain the monarchical term, but was overruled by the Imperial ministers. John S. Ewart has, from his own point of view, developed the same idea in his Kingdom of Canada.

King’s American Dragoons. Raised in the old colony of New York, and serving throughout the Revolutionary War on the loyal side, they were disbanded in 1783. The first Loyalist regiment from New York to arrive at the mouth of the St. John river, New Brunswick. The officers and men were given land near Fredericton, in what was named the Parish of Prince William, after Prince William Henry, afterwards William IV, who had presented the regiment with its colours. Of the members of this regiment, Major Daniel Murray became one of the first four representatives of the county of York in the provincial Assembly; Ward Chipman became the first solicitor-general of the province; Jonathan Odell, the first provincial secretary; John Saunders, chief-justice of New Brunswick, and several others filled important public offices.

King’s American Regiment. Raised by Edmund Fanning in 1777, in and about New York. Saw service against the revolutionists in Rhode Island in 1778, and later in New York. One of the Loyalist regiments that came to Canada before the close of the Revolution, and was part of Carleton’s command.

King’s College (New Brunswick). See New Brunswick, University of.

King’s College (Nova Scotia). The oldest Canadian college except Laval. An academy opened at Windsor, Nova Scotia, 1788, under the auspices of the Church of England. The following year an Act passed for “the permanent establishment and effectual support of a college at Windsor,” and £400 per annum granted towards its maintenance. Under this Act, King’s College opened in 1790. Received royal charter, 1802. Moved to Halifax and affiliated with Dalhousie University. Thomas Chandler Haliburton one of its distinguished graduates. Bib.: Partridge, University of King’s College, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 4; Akins, Brief Account of the Origin of King’s College; Hind, University of King’s College.

King’s College (Upper Canada). Granted royal charter, 1827. See Toronto University.

Kingsford, William (1819-1898). Historian. Came to Canada from England in 1837. Qualified as a civil engineer in Montreal, and practised his profession for some years. The author of many pamphlets in addition to his monumental history, the preparation of which he took up late in life, and completed shortly before his death. Bib.: Works: Impressions of the West and South during a Six Weeks’ Holiday; Canadian Canals; Canadian Archæology; Early Bibliography of Ontario; History of Canada, ten vols. For list of Dr. Kingsford’s contributions to periodicals, see R. S. C. Trans., 1894, 47-48. For biog., see Morgan, Can. Men; MacMurchy, Canadian Literature.

King’s Printer. Office created in the various colonies or provinces of British North America, to take charge of official or government printing. The incumbent of the office was in many cases also a journalist, publishing a paper that was sometimes entirely filled with official announcements, sometimes an odd combination of an official organ and a newspaper. Samuel Neilson was king’s printer at Quebec in 1822 and edited the Quebec Gazette. Succeeded in 1823 by John Charlton Fisher. Louis Roy was first king’s printer of Upper Canada, and in 1793 issued the first number of the Upper Canada Gazette. Replaced, 1794, by G. Tiffany. John Howe, father of Joseph Howe, was the first king’s printer of Nova Scotia, and was succeeded by his son of the same Christian name. Christopher Sower was the first incumbent of the office in New Brunswick, 1785. His paper was The Royal Gazette and New Brunswick Advertiser. In Prince Edward Island the Royal Gazette first appeared in 1791.

King’s Royal Regiment of New York. Raised by Sir John Johnson, and “spread desolation about that part of the country wherein had lain his own possessions before they were confiscated by the rebels.” The regiment was disbanded after the Revolution and the officers and men given grants of land in Upper Canada.

Kingston. City of Ontario, founded by United Empire Loyalists, 1783. Under its ancient names of Cataraqui or Fort Frontenac, it dates back to 1673. Was an important military post both during the French régime and after the founding of the Loyalist town in 1783. The British shipping on Lake Ontario in the early days mainly built there. Described by the Duc de la Rochefoucault and other early travellers in Upper Canada. Became the capital of Canada in 1841. Incorporated as town 1838, as city 1846. The site of Queen’s University and the Royal Military College. See also, Cataraqui. Bib.: Machar, Old Kingston.

Kinross, Cecil John. Private 49th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. During an attack at Passchendaele Ridge, 10th and 11th of November, 1917, he rushed across open ground in broad daylight, and under intense artillery and machine-gun fire, captured an enemy machine-gun and killed the crew of six. Throughout the day he showed marvellous coolness and courage, fighting with the utmost aggressiveness against heavy odds until seriously wounded.

Kinzie, John (1763-1828). Born at Quebec, son of John McKenzie, a surgeon in the Royal American Regiment. Taken to New York as a child, he returned to Quebec, learned the trade of a silversmith, moved to Detroit and became a fur trader. Married there in 1798 Eleanor Lytle, widow of a British officer, Captain Daniel McKillop. In 1803 Kinzie moved to Chicago, where Fort Dearborn was about to be built. In 1812 he and his family were saved from massacre, taken by the Indians to Detroit and surrendered as prisoners of war. In 1813 Kinzie was paroled by General Procter. Arrested the same year for treasonable correspondence with the Americans, carried to Quebec, but subsequently released as a citizen of the United States. Returned to Chicago, 1816, and spent the rest of his life there. Bib.: Gordon, John Kinzie.

Kirby, William (1817-1906). Born in Kingston-upon-Hull, England. Came to Canada, 1832, but educated at Cincinnati, Ohio. Settled at Niagara, Ontario, 1839, where he edited and published the Mail for twenty years. Collector of customs at Niagara, 1871-1895. Bib.: Works: The United Empire; The Golden Dog; Pontiac; Canadian Idylls; Annals of Niagara. For biog., see MacMurchy, Canadian Literature.

Kirke, Sir David (1596-1655?). Born in Dieppe, son of a Scottish merchant. Went to England, and, with his two brothers, was given command of an expedition against the French in Canada, 1627. Appeared before Quebec, but Champlain, who was then in charge, refused to surrender. Returned down the river, met and defeated the French squadron under De Roquemont, in July, 1628. Reappeared before Quebec the following year, this time under the auspices of Sir William Alexander, and the garrison, reduced to starvation, was forced to surrender. Knighted by Charles I, in 1633, and obtained a grant of lands in Newfoundland. Appointed governor of the island; removed by Cromwell; and returned in 1652. Bib.: Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada; Parkman, Pioneers of France; Cyc. Am. Biog.

Kirke, Sir Lewis. Born, 1599. Accompanied his brother Sir David Kirke on his expeditions to Canada and Newfoundland. Demanded the surrender of Quebec from Champlain in 1629. Left in charge after its capture, and surrendered it to the French on the conclusion of peace. Fought on the side of Charles during the Civil War. Commanded a troop of horse at the battle of Edgehill; took part in the siege of Gloucester and in the battle of Newbury; knighted by the king, 1643; made governor of Bridgenorth Castle; heavily fined by Cromwell for his loyalty to Charles. After the Restoration appointed captain and paymaster of the corps of gentleman-at-arms. Bib.: Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada; Parkman, Pioneers of France.

Kirke, Thomas. Born, 1603. Brother of Sir David and Sir Lewis Kirke. Accompanied them on their expeditions to Canada and Newfoundland. Took Emery de Caën prisoner. Killed during the Civil War, fighting on the side of Charles. Bib.: Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

Kirkpatrick, Sir George Airey (1841-1899). Born in Kingston. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin; studied law, and called to the bar, 1865. Sat for Frontenac in Dominion House, 1870-1892; Speaker, 1883-1887; member of Privy Council, 1891; lieutenant-governor of Ontario, 1892-1897; K. C. M. G., 1897. Bib.: Read, Lieutenant-Governors of Upper Canada; Morgan, Can. Men.

Kitchener. Formerly Berlin, a city in Ontario. Name changed during the War of 1914-1918. Founded, 1806, by settlers from Pennsylvania. Incorporated as a town in 1871, and as a city in 1912. First known as Ebytown.

Klondyke. See Yukon.

Knight, Arthur George. Sergeant, 10th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. At Villers-les-Cagnicourt, on September 2nd, 1918, led a bombing section against the enemy under very heavy fire. When his party was held up, he dashed forward alone against the enemy machine-gunners and trench mortar crews and forced them to retire in confusion. In the subsequent pursuit he followed the enemy into a deep tunnel and captured twenty men; subsequently routing single-handed another party which was opposing the advance of his platoon. Afterwards fatally wounded.

Knox, Captain John. Served in the War of the Austrian Succession. Ensign in 1749. With Wolfe at Quebec. Wrote a valuable account of the campaigns in North America, 1757 to 1760. Gives fullest account of the siege of Quebec, 1759, from the British standpoint. His Journal was published in 1769, and a new edition, edited by A. G. Doughty, issued by Champlain Society. Died, 1778. Bib.: An Historical Journal of the Campaigns in North America, 1757-1760. See also Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Knox College. Theological College, established, 1844, by Free Church Presbyterians at Toronto. Afterwards affiliated with the University of Toronto. Bib.: Caven, Historical Sketch of Knox College, in Canada: An Ency., vol. 4.

Konowal, Filip. Private, 47th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force. Victoria Cross. Awarded for conspicuous bravery and leadership at Lens, August 22nd to 24th, 1917. In charge of a section mopping up cellars, craters and machine-gun emplacements. He attacked seven of the enemy in a crater single-handed and killed them all. When a machine-gun was holding up the right flank, he rushed the post, killed the crew and brought back the gun to his own lines. The next day he again attacked single-handed an enemy machine-gun emplacement, killed the crew and destroyed the gun and emplacement.

Kootenay Indians. Or Kutenai. A tribe now living in parts of south-eastern British Columbia and northern Montana. They form a distinct linguistic stock. Formerly inhabited the plains east of the mountains, where they hunted the buffalo, but were driven west by the Blackfeet. David Thompson was the first traveller to visit and describe them. He built Fort Kootenay, or Kootenay House, on what is now known as Lake Windermere, near the headwaters of the Columbia, in the Kootenay country, in 1807. Father De Smet worked among them for many years. Bib.: Thompson’s Journals, edited by Tyrrell; Hodge, Handbook of American Indians.

La Barre, Joseph Antoine Lefebvre de (1622-1688). Governor of La Guyane in 1665; in 1682 arrived in Quebec as governor of Canada. Summoned a conference on the Indian question, sent an expedition against the Iroquois, which ended in ignominious terms of peace. Disparaged the discoveries of La Salle and seized his forts. Indulged in illegitimate trading with the Indians. His administration was marked by hopeless incompetence. Recalled, 1685. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac and La Salle; Roy, La Barre (Bull. Rech. Hist., 1914).

Labrador. The name has been sometimes popularly applied to the whole territory bounded by the Atlantic, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay, which includes not only the Labrador coast-strip, but also a portion of northern Quebec. Also known at one time as New Britain. The name is properly applied to the strip of coast from Cape Chidley to Blanc Sablon, forming a dependency of the colony of Newfoundland. On various theories as to origin of name, see Ganong, Cartography of Gulf of St. Lawrence (R. S. C., 1889). The Labrador coast was first discovered by the Northmen, in the tenth century. Cabot sailed along the coast in 1498, and Corte-Real in 1500. The interior remained practically unexplored till traversed, in part, by officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company about 1840. Many years later explored by A. P. Low and other officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. It originally formed part of New France; was annexed to Newfoundland in 1763; in 1774 was restored to Quebec; in 1809 re-annexed to Newfoundland. There are a few posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company on the coast. The southern portion is inhabited by a primitive race of fishermen; in the north are several missions of the Moravian Brethren, first established there in 1764. Bib.: Cartwright, Sixteen Years on the Coast of Labrador; Hind, Explorations in Interior of Labrador; Packard, The Labrador Coast; Stearns, Labrador; Ami, Canada and Newfoundland; Grenfell, Labrador; Hubbard, A Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador; Gosling, Labrador, Its Discovery and Development; Cabot, In Northern Labrador.

Labrador Boundary. Has been for many years a subject of controversy between Canada and Newfoundland. J. D. Rogers, in Newfoundland Historical and Geographical, points out that by the Proclamation of 1763, the Quebec Act of 1774 and the Act of 1809, the western boundary of Labrador was St. John’s river opposite Anticosti; by the Act of 1825 it was defined as east of a line drawn due north from Blanc Sablon to latitude 52°, but “the northern prolongation of this line to Hudson strait was not defined either by this later Act or by the letters patent which put the Atlantic coasts of Labrador under Newfoundland, (March 28th, 1876), or by any other Act or letters patent, and the Privy Council are still considering what line shall be drawn.” The question is yet (1926) undecided. Bib.: White, Boundary Disputes and Treaties in Canada and its Provinces.

Labrador Company. In 1661 the Company of the Hundred Associates leased that part of the Labrador coast, or what was then considered the Labrador coast, facing on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to François Bissot, Louis Jolliet and Tachet. The grant ran from Cape Cormorant to the Strait of Belle Isle, four hundred and fifty miles with a depth of six miles. After the cession of New France to Great Britain in 1763, the successors of Bissot and his associates, known as the Labrador Company, attempted to make good their claim, but Haldimand refused to admit it. After Confederation the province of Quebec, took up the question of ownership and in 1890 brought action against the Company. The case finally went to the Imperial Privy Council, which decided that the Company was entitled to the property from Cape Cormorant to the River Goynish, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles and six miles deep. This was the old seigniory of Mingan. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada.

La Chesnaye. See Aubert de la Chesnaye.

Lachine. Now a city, on the island of Montreal. The place is said to have been named by La Salle’s men, in derision of his dream of a westward passage to China. The land was granted by the Sulpicians to La Salle as a seigniory in 1666; and from here he set forth on his memorable explorations in 1669. Twenty years later, this was the scene of a terrible massacre by the Iroquois. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Lachine became of importance as the starting-point of the brigades of the fur traders, bound for the far west. The town was founded in 1675, and incorporated as a city in 1909. Bib.: Parkman, La Salle and Frontenac; Girouard, Lake St. Louis and Cavelier de la Salle.

Lachine Canal. To overcome the Lachine rapids in the St. Lawrence above Montreal. Eight and a half miles in length. Early in the nineteenth century the first attempt was made to build a canal here, but it was not completed because of lack of funds. Between 1818 and 1825 a canal was built with seven locks to accommodate vessels of four and a half feet draught. Between 1843 and 1848 the canal was enlarged and deepened to nine feet. In 1885 it was again enlarged to its present dimensions, with five locks 270 feet long by 45 feet wide and 14 feet deep. The International Joint Commission in its report on the proposed St. Lawrence deep waterway, recommended a canal and lock at Lachine with a depth of twenty-five feet and provision for further deepening to thirty feet. See also Canals. Bib.: Rheaume, Lachine and Origin of its Canal (Women’s Can. Hist. Soc., Trans., vol. ii).

Lacolle. A few miles north of the boundary between Quebec and New York. In November, 1812, General Dearborn, who had assembled an army of 10,000 men at Plattsburg, for an attack on Montreal, sent, on the 20th, a force of 1,200 men to make a reconnaissance across the frontier. At Lacolle the column came into contact with the advanced posts of a body of 500 Canadian militia and Indians under Colonel McKay. McKay so handled his small force that the enemy, in the dark, fired upon their own people, became demoralized, and retreated to Champlain on the United States side of the boundary. Toward the end of March, 1814, General Wilkinson advanced with an army of 4,000 men from Plattsburg against the frontier. In a stone mill and blockhouse at Lacolle, Major Hancock commanded 350 Canadians and regulars. Outnumbered eleven to one, he held his position so stubbornly that Wilkinson raised the siege and returned to Plattsburg. See also War of 1812-1814. Bib.: Lucas, Canadian War of 1812.

Lacombe, Albert (1827-1916). Born at St. Sulpice, Quebec. Ordained priest, 1849, and immediately left for the western field as a missionary. Laboured among the Cree and other western tribes for many years, and devoted much time to the study of their languages. Vicar-general of the diocese of St. Albert. His life in the west formed a connecting link between the days of the fur trade and the days of the wheat fields, the day of the buffalo and that of the transcontinental railway. He had known and been esteemed by nearly all the famous travellers in western Canada, Dr. Hector, Southesk, Sir George Simpson, Paul Kane, Milton and Cheadle, Dr. Rae, Butler. His influence did much to prevent a general uprising of the tribes in 1885. Bib.: Dictionnaire et Grammaire de la Langue des Cris. See also Pilling, Bibliography of Algonquian Languages. For biog., see Hughes, Father Lacombe.

La Corne de St. Luc, Louis Luc (1711-1784). Lieutenant, 1733; captain, 1744; chevalier of St. Louis, 1751. Stationed at Fort St. Frédéric (Crown Point), 1741-1747, at La Présentation, on the St. Lawrence, in 1752; and the following year sent to take command of the posts west of Lake Superior, succeeding Le Gardeur de Saint-Pierre. Had great influence with the Indians, and led a large party of them to the capture of Fort William Henry in 1757. In 1758 mentioned at Quebec; and the following year back once more at La Présentation, where he remained in charge until driven from his post by the advancing British army. In 1761, one of the seven survivors of the wreck of the Auguste. Remained in Canada after the conquest, and in 1775 raised a company of Indians to act against the Americans. He was accused of complicity in the Walker affair, tried and acquitted. A member of the Council appointed under the Quebec Act. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe and Pontiac; Sulte, Les Canadiens-français.

La Corne, Pierre, Chevalier de. Accompanied Joncaire on an embassy to the Indians at Niagara, 1720. Again there in 1727. Learned the Iroquois language. Sent to Acadia with De Ramezay, 1747. Took part in the action at Grand Pré. Returned to Quebec; took part in the repulse of the Iroquois at Montreal the same year. Received the Cross of St. Louis, 1749. Again sent to Nova Scotia in 1750 to induce the Acadians to remove from the province. After the failure of the attempt, returned to Quebec, and took an active share in the military expeditions of the next ten years. Reinforced Ticonderoga in 1758, and the same year was defeated and wounded near Oswego. Distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec, 1759, where he had command of a body of local troops. Wounded at Sillery. Drowned at sea in 1761, when the Auguste was wrecked. Bib.: Campbell, History of Nova Scotia; Historical Documents relating to the Province of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Lacoste, Sir Alexandre (1842-1923). Born at Boucherville, Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law and called to the bar of Lower Canada, 1863. A member of the Legislative Council of Quebec, 1882; and in 1884 called to the Senate; appointed Speaker, 1891. Chief-justice of the Court of Appeal of Quebec, 1891-1907. Sworn of the Privy Council, and knighted, 1892. Administrator of Quebec, 1898. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who.

Lacoste, Louis (1798-1878). Born at Boucherville, Quebec. Educated at St. Sulpice College, Montreal, and called to the bar of Lower Canada. Sat in the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, 1834-1838, and in the Legislative Assembly of Canada, 1843-1861. Elected a member of the Legislative Council, 1861. Appointed to the Dominion Senate, 1867. Bib.: Can. Parl. Companion.

Lacrosse. An Indian game popular among many of the tribes. In a French memoir of 1718 it is described as a game with twenty or more on each side, their bat a sort of racket, and the ball of very heavy wood a little larger than a tennis ball. The Indians played entirely naked except for a breech-clout and deer-skin shoes. Two goals were set up, and the game opened in the centre, one side driving the ball in one direction, and the other returning it, those who could drive it through the goal being the winners. Often one village would play against another, and tribe against tribe, for considerable stakes. The game is also described by Alexander Henry in his Travels and Adventures, and by many of the other early travellers and fur traders in the west. See also Jesuit Relations (Thwaites), vol. x, 185-7, 326-8; xv, 179. It is commemorated in such place-names as Île à la Crosse, a lake and trading post of the Hudson’s Bay Company in Saskatchewan, and the town and county of La Crosse, in Wisconsin. The game was so popular for many years in Canada as to become almost a national institution.

La Durantaye. See Morel de la Durantaye.

Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Joseph Roche Yves Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de (1757-1834). Sailed for America in 1777, with a number of other French officers, and appointed by Congress a major-general. Met Washington at Philadelphia, and a close friendship sprang up between the two. Wounded at Brandywine. Given command of a division of Washington’s army. In 1778 appointed to the command of an expedition against Canada, which ended in a fiasco. He wrote a letter to the French Canadians, had it printed and distributed throughout the province. Carried on a correspondence with Pillon and other disaffected citizens of Montreal and Quebec. Served with distinction at Monmouth, and later in Virginia. Secured from France an auxiliary force of 6,000 men to assist the Americans. After the close of the war, commanded a division of the French army in the war against Austria, 1792, but removed by the Jacobins, and fled to Belgium. Captured, and imprisoned by the Austrians, and not set free until 1797. After Waterloo, sat in the Chamber of Deputies, 1818-1824; visited the United States in the latter year; and in 1830 instrumental in placing Louis Philippe on the throne. Bib.: Mémoires, etc., de Lafayette; La Bédollière, Vie Politique de Lafayette; Cloquet, Souvenirs de la Vie Privée de Lafayette. See also Cyc. Am. Biog., with further bibliog.

Lafitau, Joseph-François (1681-1746). Jesuit missionary in Canada for many years. Afterwards returned to France, where he became a professor of belles-lettres. Chiefly remembered because of his invaluable work on the manners and customs of the Indian tribes of Canada in the early years of the eighteenth century. Bib.: Mœurs des Sauvages Amériquains; Rochemonteix, Les Jesuites et La Nouvelle France.

Laflamme, Rodolphe (1827-1893). Born in Montreal. Entered public life as member for Jacques-Cartier in Dominion House, 1872; minister of inland revenue, 1876; resigned with the government, 1878. He had been a member of the Parti Rouge, and at one time Liberal leader in Quebec. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years.

LaFontaine, Sir Louis-Hippolyte (1807-1864). Born at Boucherville, Quebec. His grandfather had been a member of the Assembly of Lower Canada, 1796-1804. He was educated at the College of Montreal, studied law, and practised in Montreal. Elected a member of the Assembly for Terrebonne in 1830, and became associated with Papineau. He took a leading part in the constitutional agitation before 1837, but refused to have anything to do with the rebellion. He was in France during the early part of 1838, returned to Canada, was arrested, but shortly released without trial. Opposed union of the provinces, and in doing so spoke as the recognized leader of French-Canadian opinion. Sydenham offered him the office of solicitor-general of Lower Canada, which he refused. For some years he had been in correspondence with Baldwin and Hincks, with a view to bringing about responsible government in both provinces. Defeated in Terrebonne in 1841, but the same year elected for York. He had already made up his mind to accept the union, as the best means of bringing about peace and good government. In 1842 he was offered, but declined, the attorney-generalship of Lower Canada. On the resignation of the Draper government, the LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry came into office, LaFontaine taking the attorney-generalship of Lower Canada. He is said at this time to have borne a striking resemblance to Napoleon I. His relations with Metcalfe became strained, because of the failure of the latter to accept the principle of ministerial responsibility. In the Assembly he devoted himself particularly to the reorganization of the judicial system of Lower Canada. His ministry resigned, 1843, having found their views as to constitutional government at variance with those of the governor-general. LaFontaine returned to the practice of law in Montreal. Metcalfe having denounced the Reformers as enemies of British sovereignty, LaFontaine resigned his position as queen’s counsel in protest. In 1844 reëlected for Terrebonne, and four years later formed with his colleague the second LaFontaine-Baldwin administration, he himself taking as before the attorney-generalship of Lower Canada. His relations with the new governor. Lord Elgin, were eminently satisfactory, and the ministry embarked on a programme of important measures, in the preparation and presentation of which LaFontaine took a leading part. Although he had been instrumental in making possible the return of Papineau to his native land, the latter, now back again in the Legislature, bitterly attacked him and his policies. LaFontaine was essentially conservative in his general point of view. He “set his face strongly against anything that savoured of spoliation of the rightful claims of the Church.” He was not in favour of secularization of the Clergy Reserves. On Seigniorial Tenure, his views were that while the system had historic value, it had lost its usefulness and should be abolished, with proper compensation to the seigniors. In 1851 he retired from political life, at the comparatively early age of forty-four. In 1853 he was appointed chief-justice of Lower Canada, and the following year was created a baronet in recognition of his distinguished services to the country. As a jurist he won a reputation second only to that which he had earned as a statesman. He died in Montreal. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Morgan, Cel. Can.; Taylor, Brit. Am.; David, Biographies et Portraits; Hincks, Reminiscences; Leacock, Baldwin, LaFontaine, Hincks; Lewis, George Brown; DeCelles, Papineau, Cartier.

La Galissonnière, Rolland-Michel Barrin, Marquis de (1693-1756). Born at Rochefort. Served with distinction in French navy. Came to New France 1747 as administrator of the government until the arrival of the governor, Marquis de la Jonquière. Returned to France, 1749; the same year appointed one of the commissioners on behalf of the French government to settle the boundaries of Acadia. A man of scientific attainments; head of department of nautical charts at Paris. Commanded French fleet at Minorca, 1756, and defeated the British under Admiral Byng. Died in Nemours, France. During his administration in Canada, he is said to have furnished money and supplies to the Abbé La Loutre to enable him to carry on his work in Acadia. Bib.: Mémoire sur les Colonies de la France dans l’Amérique Septentrionale. For biog., see Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe; Selections from the Public Documents of Nova Scotia, ed. by Akins; Graincourt, Les hommes illustres de la Marine Française.

Lahontan, Louis Armand de Lom d’Arce, Baron de (1666-1715). Arrived in Canada in 1683 with reinforcements for La Barre’s army; spent some time at Quebec; took part in the expedition of 1684 and in that of Denonville in 1687; also travelled extensively in the west. Embodied the result of his Canadian experiences in a volume of travels, which, especially his extraordinary story of the Rivière Longue, has been the subject of much controversy. Succeeded Du Lhut in command of the post of St. Joseph on the St. Clair river, but abandoned the post the following spring. Described by Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin, as “clever, cynical, inconstant, veering hither and thither with each wind of rumour.” Visited Newfoundland in 1692 and 1693; and afterwards travelled in Portugal, Spain, and Holland. Bib.: Nouveaux Voyages dans l’Amérique Septentrionale; La Haye, 1703. Published in English, London, 1735. For other editions, see Thwaites’s edition of the Voyages, Chicago, 1905. See also Roy, Le Baron de Lahontan (R. S. C., 1894); Crompton, Lahontan.

Laird, David (1833-1914). Born at New Glasgow, Prince Edward Island. Represented Queens county, in House of Commons, 1873-1876; became minister of the interior, 1873; and in 1876 appointed lieutenant-governor of the North-West Territories. Succeeded by Edgar Dewdney in 1881. Appointed Indian commissioner for the western provinces and territories, 1898. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por.; Morgan, Can. Men; Canadian Who’s Who; Rattray, The Scot in British North America.

La Jemeraye, Christophe Dufrost, Sieur de. (1708-1735.) His father was a French officer at Montreal, bearing the same Christian names, and his mother Marie Renée, a sister of La Vérendrye. In 1729 he was in command of Fort Beauharnois. He joined his uncle in 1731, and accompanied him on his expedition in search of the Western Sea. Was with him at Fort St. Pierre and Fort St. Charles in 1732-1735. Died in 1735 while attempting to establish a new post west of the Lake of the Woods. Bib.: Burpee, Journals of La Vérendrye.

Lajoie, Antoine Gérin (1824-1882). Born in Yamachiche, Quebec. Educated at Nicolet College, and while there wrote the song Le Canadien Errant. Studied law and called to the bar, 1848. One of the founders of the Institut Canadien, 1849. Took up journalism and was editor of La Minerve, 1845-1852. Appointed a French translator to the Canadian Assembly, and later made assistant to the librarian of Parliament. Retired from public service, 1880. Bib.: Works: Cathéchisme Politique, ou Elements du Droit Public et Constitutionne du Canada; Jean Rivard. For biog., see Gérin, Antoine Gérin-Lajoie.

La Jonquière, Jacques-Pierre de Taffanel, Marquis de (1685-1752). Born in Paris, he joined the navy and saw much service, taking part in twenty-nine cruises, and nine naval battles, in which he was thrice wounded. Visited Quebec in command of a warship in 1733 and 1738. Rear-admiral under d’Anville in the disastrous expedition against Acadia, 1746. Commanded another expedition with a similar purpose, 1747, which was defeated by Anson and Warren. Appointed governor of Canada, 1746. Captured and held for a time in England as prisoner of war. Arrived in Canada, 1749, and governor of Canada, 1749-1752. His administration marked by nothing that would further the welfare of the colony; but rather by a determined effort to enrich himself at the expense of the country. Died in Quebec. Bib.: Parkman, Half-Century of Conflict and Montcalm and Wolfe; La Jonquière, Le Chef d’Escadre, Marquis de La Jonquière; Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

Lake Champlain. See Champlain, Lake.

Lake George. South of Lake Champlain. This beautiful lake was known to the Indians as Horicon, and to the French as Lac St. Sacrament, that name having been given to it by the Jesuit missionary Jogues who reached its shores on the eve of Corpus Christi. The outlet of the lake, after circling through the forest and passing over a series of leaps in the falls of Ticonderoga, flows nearly two miles and enters Lake Champlain just above Fort George. Lying on the recognized thoroughfare, north and south, this lake has been the scene of many memorable conflicts, in the Indian and colonial wars. See also Ticonderoga; Fort William Henry; Montcalm; Abercromby. Bib.: Reid, Lake George and Lake Champlain; Smith, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony; Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Lake George, battle of. In September, 1755, Baron Dieskau with a force of French and Indians left Ticonderoga and marched to Lake George to attack the New Englanders under William Johnson. He succeeded in ambushing them a few miles from the lake, killed many and drove the rest back in confusion. LeGardeur de Saint-Pierre was killed in the skirmish. Dieskau marched on to the lake, where Johnson had thrown up rude fortifications. In the fight that ensued, and which ended in a complete victory for the New Englanders, both Johnson and Dieskau were wounded, and the latter was captured. See also Dieskau; Johnson. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

Lake of the Woods. On the international boundary, west of Lake Superior. Probably discovered by Jacques de Noyon, about the year 1688. Fort St. Charles was built by La Vérendrye, on the western shore of the lake, in 1732. His son Jean, with the Jesuit missionary Aulneau, and a number of voyageurs, were murdered by the Sioux on an island in the lake, in 1736. In addition to its present name, which is a translation of the name given it by the French, Lac des Bois, it has also borne several other names, Lac des Sioux, Lac des Isles, Lake of the Sandhills, etc. It was the scene of a long and very complicated controversy in connection with the international boundary (See North West Angle); and of an elaborate investigation by the International Joint Commission. Bib.: Final Report of the International Joint Commission on the Lake of the Woods and Atlas; Burpee, Journals of La Vérendrye.

Lalemant, Charles (1587-1674). First superior of Jesuit missions in Canada; arrived at Quebec from France in 1625, with Ennemond Massé and Jean de Brébeuf. They were the guests of the Récollets for two years, until their own home on the banks of the St. Charles was built. Lalemant’s Relation of 1625 affords a graphic picture of the life of the little settlement at Quebec, and the early beginnings of the Jesuit missions. He returned to France about 1636 and became Superior of the Jesuits in Paris. In 1651 he was proposed as first bishop of Quebec, but the rules of his order made it impossible. Bib.: Douglas, Quebec in Seventeenth Century; Relation, 1625; Le Clercq, Établissement de la Foy; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America; Parkman, Jesuits in North America.

Lalemant, Gabriel (1610-1649). Jesuit missionary; nephew of Jérôme and Charles. Came to Canada in 1646. Laboured with Brébeuf at the mission of St. Ignace, among the Hurons, and shared his martyrdom in 1649. He was tortured with every refinement of cruelty that the wide experience of the Iroquois could devise, but endured it all with heroic courage and fortitude. A Parisian by birth, and his family belonged to the class of gens de robe. Bib.: Ragueneau, Relations des Hurons, 1649; Parkman, Jesuits in North America.

Lalemant, Jérôme (1593-1673). Brother of Charles. Born in Paris. Taught philosophy and the sciences at the College of Clermont, and came to Canada in 1638. Superior of Jesuit missions in Canada, 1645-1656, and 1659-1665. A missionary to the Hurons until 1645, when called to Quebec to assume the office of superior. Sailed for France in 1650, and returned the following year. Sailed again for France in 1656. Two years later appointed rector of the Royal College of La Flèche. Returned to Canada in 1659 as vicar-general to Laval. Died in Quebec. Bib.: Journal des Jésuites; Parkman, Jesuits in North America; Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Lamberville, Jacques de (1641-1710). Born at Rouen, and became a Jesuit at the age of twenty. Came to Canada in 1675, and was sent to the Mohawk mission. He was involved, like his brother, in the mismanaged expedition of La Barre, though in no way responsible for it; was for a time chaplain to the garrison at Cataraqui. Between 1688 and 1701 he was in Quebec, and in the latter year went to the Onondagas, returning to Montreal in 1709. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Lamberville, Jean de (1633-1714). Born at Rouen, he joined the Society of Jesus, came to Canada, and was sent to the Onondagas. His relations contain a very minute and valuable account of the public and private life of this tribe, some of the particulars being sufficiently blood-curdling. The governor, La Barre, having made up his mind to attack the Senecas, Lamberville tried unavailingly to make him understand the unwisdom of such a step. In the end, La Barre had to appeal to the missionary to make peace for him with the Iroquois. After La Barre’s recall, Denonville, who succeeded him, also planned an expedition against the Iroquois, and, rather than have his plans suspected by recalling the missionary and his brother, deliberately left them to the probable rage of the Indians. Lamberville learned of Denonville’s treachery through messengers sent by Dongan, the governor of New York. Through the friendliness of some of the Iroquois chiefs, the missionary escaped, but his work was ruined. On a subsequent visit to the Onondagas he was taken sick of the scurvy, and, although he recovered, his health was shattered, and his Superiors sent him back to France as procurator of the mission. Died in Paris. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests; Parkman, Jesuits in North America.

La Minerve. Montreal newspaper, established, 1826. Supported Papineau in the agitation that led up to the Rebellion of 1837-1838, and published seditious articles by A. N. Morin. In later years it became more restrained and conservative, supporting the policies of LaFontaine and Cartier.

La Mothe Cadillac, Antoine de. See Cadillac.

La Motte, Pierre de St. Paul, Sieur de. Came to Canada with the Carignan Regiment, 1665. Built Fort Ste. Anne, at the northern extremity of Lake Champlain, 1666. Two years later took the place of Zacharie Dupuis as commandant at Montreal. Returned to France, 1670. Bib.: Roy, La Régiment de Carignan.

Lancaster, Joseph (1778-1838). Founded the Lancasterian system of education. In 1798 began teaching poor children on the Madras system; and gradually introduced improvements. In 1818 came to America, and at one time conducted a school in Montreal. Published several books on his system of education. See also Madras schools. Bib.: Dict. Nat. Biog.

Land Question. A long-standing problem in Prince Edward Island, that delayed for many years the settlement of the colony. In 1767 the island had been divided among a group of non-resident proprietors, upon whom were imposed certain duties of settlement and the payment of a small annual quit rent. The obligations were generally ignored, and in 1780 the governor attempted to enforce payment, proceeding to sell several of the properties on non-compliance. The proprietors petitioned the Home government, the governor’s action was repudiated, the sales disallowed, and the lands restored to the original owners. A long struggle followed between the local authorities and the owners. Between 1814 and 1824 enforced sales were extensive. In 1859 the question was still one of absorbing interest; Sir Samuel Cunard and other proprietors suggested the appointment of a commission to investigate the matter. The local Assembly agreed to this, and appointed Joseph Howe, J. H. Gray and J. W. Ritchie. They recommended the purchase of the proprietory lands on terms to be fixed by arbitration, and their reallotment at low rates to the old tenants. The Assembly accepted the recommendations, but the colonial office rejected them. The question dragged along until 1873, when Prince Edward Island entered Confederation. A loan of $800,000 was then guaranteed for the purchase and reallotment of the estates. In 1875 commissioners were appointed to determine the value of the lands, whose sale under the provisions of the provincial Act were then made compulsory. Bib.: Johnson, First Things in Canada.

Landry, Sir Pierre Armand (1846-1916). Born in Dorchester, New Brunswick. Educated at St. Joseph’s College, Memramcook; studied law and called to the bar of New Brunswick, 1870. Member of the Assembly, 1878-1883; elected to the House of Commons, 1883; appointed judge of the County Court, 1890; puisne judge of the Supreme Court of New Brunswick, 1893; chief-justice, 1914. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Langelier, Sir François Charles Stanislas (1838-1915). Born at Ste. Rosalie, Quebec. Educated at Laval University; studied law and called to the bar, 1861. Joined the staff of Laval, and became dean of the law faculty, and member of the council. Entered public life in 1871; returned for Montmagny, 1873, and for Portneuf, 1878, to Legislature. Held the offices of commissioner of crown lands, and provincial treasurer, in the Quebec government, 1878-1879. Sat for Megantic, 1884-1887, and for Quebec Centre, 1887-1898, in Dominion House. Appointed puisne judge of Superior Court of Quebec, 1898; chief-justice, 1906; knighted, 1907; lieutenant-governor of Quebec, 1911-1915. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Langevin, Sir Hector Louis (1826-1906). Born at Quebec. Entered Parliament in 1867, as member for Dorchester; subsequently represented successively Charlevoix and Three Rivers. He had been a delegate to both the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences. Appointed secretary of state, 1867; minister of public works, 1869; postmaster-general, 1878; and again minister of public works, 1879; resigned, 1891. Bib.: Dent, Can. Por. and Last Forty Years; Taylor, Brit. Am.; Rose, Cyc. Can. Biog.

Langlade, Charles Michel (1729-1800?). Of same family as Nouet de Morras de Langlade (q.v.). Born at Michilimackinac. Entered the army and became a cadet in 1750. Du Quesne praises his services in a letter dated 1752. Married Charlotte Bourassa in 1754. A fur trader at Michilimackinac up to 1764. Took part in the campaign against Braddock. In 1756 led Indian reinforcements to Fort Duquesne. In the following year defeated a raid of Rogers’ Rangers on Lake Champlain. Led the western Indians against Fort William Henry. Second in command at Fort Michilimackinac, 1757. Served at Quebec in 1759. Promoted lieutenant in 1760. Took part in the defence of Montreal that year. In command at Michilimackinac, and surrendered the fort to the British in 1761. His part in the conspiracy of Pontiac has been described by Alexander Henry and others. Three or four years later he moved to Green Bay. During the American Revolution he served on the British side with the rank of captain of Indian auxiliaries. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xviii.

La Noüe. See Robutel.

Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, fifth Marquis of (1845-). Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford; succeeded to marquisate, 1866. After holding minor offices in the government became under-secretary for war in 1872, and in 1880 under-secretary for India. In 1883 appointed governor-general of Canada. During his term of office the second Riel Rebellion broke out in Saskatchewan; the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed; the Interprovincial Conference was held at Quebec, and the first Intercolonial Conference in London; and the Fisheries treaty was signed at Washington. Sent to India, 1888, as viceroy. On his return, became secretary for war in 1895, and in 1900 foreign secretary. Succeeded the Duke of Devonshire as leader of the Conservatives in the House of Lords. Bib.: Who’s Who.

La Peltrie, Marie-Madeleine de (née de Chauvigny) (1603-1671). Daughter of the Seigneur de Vaubougon, in Normandy; married early in life, and while still young was left a widow with a large fortune. Filled with religious zeal, she devoted herself and her fortune to the establishment of the Ursuline order in Canada. In 1639 she sailed for Quebec, and with her companions began there the important work of ministering to the sick and educating Indian girls. With tireless energy, she carried on the work for thirty-two years, dying in November, 1671, a few months before her lifelong friend and co-worker, Marie de l’Incarnation (q.v.). Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Jesuits in North America and Old Régime.

La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup, Comte de (1741-1788). French admiral. Sailed his fleet into Hudson Bay in 1782 and captured Prince of Wales fort from the Hudson’s Bay Company. Explored the north-west coast of America in 1788. Made a voyage around the world. Bib.: Voyage autour du Monde; Marcel, Vie de la Pérouse.

La Porte. See Louvigny.

La Potherie. See Bacqueville.

Laprairie. A town on the south shore of St. Lawrence, opposite Montreal. In the days of Frontenac it was a small settlement with a fort. A party of New Englanders under John Schuyler destroyed it in 1690, and again in 1691 under Peter Schuyler. Many years later became terminus of first Canadian railway. Bib.: Parkman, Frontenac.

La Présentation. Mission established by Father Piquet at junction of the Oswegatchie with St. Lawrence, in 1749, where the city of Ogdensburg now stands. Had a palisaded fort with blockhouses, a squad of soldiers and five small cannon. La Corne de St. Luc was stationed there in 1752 and again in 1759. Bib.: Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe.

La Riborde, Gabriel de. Récollet missionary; arrived from France in 1670, and sent to Cataraqui as chaplain to the garrison. Was in the west with La Salle and Hennepin, in 1679-1680. Murdered by the Illinois at Fort Crèvecœur in 1681. Bib.: Parkman, La Salle.

Larkin, Peter C. (1856-). Born in Montreal. Appointed Canadian representative on the Royal Commission to investigate and report on conditions and resources of the Empire in matters of Industry and Trade, 1911. Succeeded Sir George H. Perley as High Commissioner for Canada in London, 1922. Made a member of the Privy Council of Canada the same year. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

La Rochebeaucour, De. Aide-de-camp to Montcalm at Quebec. Organized a cavalry corps, and commanded it under Bougainville at the time of the Battle of the Plains. Brought provisions in to Quebec for the besieged garrison, but Ramezay had already sent his capitulation. Served in Guadaloupe as Major-Général, and died there. Bib.: Casgrain, Wolfe, Montcalm.

La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, François Alexandre Frédéric, Duc de (1747-1827). Chiefly remembered because of his valuable and entertaining Travels, “full of keen, fair-minded observation regarding every variety and detail of life in America as this exiled French nobleman found it, told in a readable style, not without an occasional touch of humour.” He visited Upper Canada in 1795, met Simcoe, and describes the settlements and the people as he found them. Simcoe entertained him at Navy Hall, and he saw the opening of the infant Legislature. Dorchester from motives of policy would not let him visit Lower Canada. Exiled from France in 1768; returned, after several years, and went into retirement until after Waterloo. Made a peer of France at the Restoration. Bib.: Works: Voyage dans les États-Unis d’Amerique fait en 1795-1797; État des Pauvres en Angleterre; Le Bonheur du Peuple; Riddell, La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt’s Travels in Canada, 1795, with Annotations and Strictures by Sir David William Smith (Ontario Archives Report, 1916).

La Ronde, Louis Denys, Sieur de. In 1687 he was a guardsman in the Marine Corps in France. Two years later served on the St. Michel which took James II to Ireland. On various ships in cruises to Canada, Acadia and Newfoundland, 1692-1695. Taken prisoner, 1695. With Iberville in Hudson Bay, 1697. Served in Acadia and Newfoundland, 1698-1699. In 1700 he was with Iberville in Louisiana. Made a voyage to Canada in 1702. Five years later fought in the defence of Port Royal. At Quebec in 1709 and 1712-1713, in Cape Breton. Between 1714 and 1720 he was in command at Toulouse. On Isle St. Jean (Prince Edward Island) 1720-1721. Commanded at Chequamegon, 1727. Between 1734 and 1739 he was engaged in exploiting copper mines on Lake Superior, and built the first sail vessel which navigated that lake, 1735. Died at Quebec in 1740. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

La Ronde, Philippe Denys, Sieur de. Son of Louis Denys. Born in 1712. Associated with his father in the attempt to develop the copper mines of Lake Superior. Succeeded him in the command of the post at Chequamegon. Bib.: Wis. Hist. Coll., xvii.

La Salle, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de (1643-1687). Born at Rouen, France. Spent some years with the Jesuits. Left them and sailed for Canada in the spring of 1666. Granted by the Sulpicians the seigniory of Lachine, from which, in 1669, he set out with Dollier de Casson and Galinée upon the first of those explorations towards the west and south for which he was to become famous. Meeting Jolliet at the western end of Lake Ontario, Dollier de Casson and Galinée decided to make their way to the upper lakes, while La Salle turned south and explored the Ohio. He was a man of vision, though not a visionary. He set before himself a great ambition, and though constantly thwarted by the selfishness of officials and traders, lived to see though not to enjoy its realization. Frontenac’s bold and enterprising spirit could sympathise with the ambitious projects of La Salle, but the weak governors who followed him did everything in their power to render his efforts fruitless. In 1674 he crossed to France and secured the seigniory of Fort Frontenac, which had just been built at the foot of Lake Ontario, where the city of Kingston now stands. In 1678 he began to prepare his further schemes of exploration. He sailed up Lake Ontario with his faithful Tonty, wintered on the banks of the Niagara, and in the spring of 1679 launched the Griffon, the first sailing vessel on the upper lakes. In her he sailed to Lake Michigan, and wintered among the Illinois. His later explorations have been the subject of long controversy—the point in dispute being whether he explored the Mississippi before or after Marquette and Jolliet. In any event he, first of white men, descended the river to its mouth, 1681-1682. Upon his return, he sailed for France, and in 1684 set out with four ships to establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. This unfortunate expedition culminated in the murder of La Salle by his own men. Parkman summed up his characteristics: “Serious in all things, incapable of the lighter pleasures, incapable of repose, finding no joy but in the pursuit of great designs, too shy for society and too reserved for popularity, often unsympathetic and always seeming so, smothering emotions which he could not utter, schooled to universal distrust, stern to his followers and pitiless to himself, bearing the brunt of every hardship and every danger, demanding of others an equal constancy joined to an implicit deference, heeding no counsel but his own, attempting the impossible and grasping at what was too vast to hold—he contained in his own complex and powerful nature the chief springs of his triumphs, his failures, and his death.” Bib.: Mémoire, in French, Hist. Coll. of Louisiana, 2d Ser., vol. 2; letters and other documents, in Margry, Découvertes; Shea, Voyages up and down the Mississippi; Parkman, La Salle; Winsor, Nar. and Crit. Hist.; Falconer, Discovery of Mississippi; Griffin, Discovery of Mississippi; Sparks, La Salle in Lib. of Am. Biog.; Gravier, Découvertes de Cavelier de La Salle; Harrisse, Notes pour Servir; Joutel, Journal Historique; Chesnel, Histoire de Cavelier de La Salle; Guénin, Cavelier de La Salle; Sulte, La Morte de La Salle; Girouard, Lake St. Louis and Cavelier de La Salle; Margry, Découvertes et établissements des Français.

La Terrière, Pierre de Sales. Came to Canada from France, 1766; appointed agent at Quebec for the St. Maurice forges, 1771; his place of business was in front of the lower town market, facing the church of Notre Dame; in 1775 appointed inspector of works, and removed to the forges, on the banks of the St. Maurice, a few miles above Three Rivers. Left an interesting account of the works, in his Mémoires de Laterrière. Implicated in the American invasion of 1776, and arrested. He was suspected of supplying the Americans with petards and cannon-balls made at the forges. Cordially disliked Haldimand. Bib.: Christie, History of Lower Canada.

La Tour, Charles Amador de. Son of Claude de la Tour. Came to Acadia in 1610 with his father. Driven out of Port Royal by the English; built a post near Cape Sable, on what is now known as Port Latour. In 1632, when Acadia was restored to France, Razilly came out with Charnisay to strengthen the colony. Razilly died in 1636, and a bitter conflict followed between Charnisay and La Tour, both of whom claimed to represent the king in Acadia. Charnisay had rebuilt Port Royal, and La Tour occupied a fort at the mouth of the St. John. The outcome of the quarrel was an order for the arrest of La Tour. Charnisay attacked La Tour’s fort, but was driven off. When he blockaded the harbour, La Tour escaped to Boston, returned with English ships, and drove Charnisay to the shelter of Port Royal. The latter’s opportunity came, however, later. He attacked the fort during La Tour’s absence. La Tour’s wife made a gallant defence, and Charnisay succeeded in the end only by resorting to treachery. He carried Madame La Tour to Port Royal, where she died in 1645. Some years later, after the death of Charnisay, La Tour brought this curious drama to a conclusion by marrying the widow of his rival. He had already obtained restitution from the king, who made him governor of Acadia; and some years later showed his powers of persuasion by obtaining a generous grant of land from Cromwell, who had, in 1654, taken possession of the colony. Subsequently turned over the rights obtained from Cromwell to Sir Thomas Temple. Died in 1664. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Hannay, History of Acadia; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

La Tour, Claude de. A Huguenot gentleman; came to Port Royal in 1610 with Poutrincourt; in 1614 had a trading post on the Penobscot. Sailed for France in 1627, and on his return the following year, with supplies for the defence of Acadia, was captured by Kirke and carried to England. There married one of the queen’s French maids of honour, and was persuaded to throw in his lot with the English. Promised to win over his son Charles (q.v.), but the latter scornfully refused to change his allegiance. Afterwards built a fort at the mouth of the St. John, for the French, to whom he had once more transferred his services. Bib.: Parkman, Old Régime; Hannay, History of Acadia; Kirke, The First English Conquest of Canada.

La Tourette, Claude Greysolon de. Born about 1660. Brother of Du Lhut (q.v.). Came to Canada in 1674 with his brother, and lived for four years in Montreal. In 1684, under Du Lhut’s instructions, he made his way to Lake Nipigon, north of Lake Superior, where he built a trading post and entered into relations with the Cree. He was so successful that in 1689 he went to Montreal to secure a larger supply of trading goods. Two years before he had brought down to the governor, Denonville, a large ingot of copper from Lake Superior. Commanded a post on the Illinois in 1727. Bib.: Kellogg, French Régime in Wisconsin.

Laure, Pierre (1688-1738). Born at Orleans; entered the Society of Jesus in 1707 at Paris; studied philosophy at Louis-le-Grand and La Flèche; came to Canada in 1711, and completed his studies in theology. In 1720 he was sent to the Saguenay mission, being stationed at Chicoutimi. In this region he remained for eighteen years. In the department of marine at Paris there is a map of his, dated 1731, showing the country about the upper Saguenay; also a revised map of 1732, and another of 1733. Laure prepared a dictionary and a grammar of the Montagnais language, which unfortunately are lost; but in an old garret in Quebec was found some years ago the original journal of his Saguenay mission, 1720 to 1730. In 1737 Laure was made curé of the church at Eboulements, and died there. Bib.: Campbell, Pioneer Priests.

Laurie, John Wimburn (1835-1912). Served in the Crimea and the Indian Mutiny; in the Fenian raids in Canada, 1866 and 1870; and in the Rebellion of 1885, where he was second in command and had charge of the base and lines of communication. He had come to Canada in 1861 at the time of the Trent affair; was made inspecting field officer of militia in Nova Scotia, held the position for five years, and afterwards became adjutant-general of militia in Nova Scotia. Promoted lieutenant-general, 1887. Bib.: Morgan, Can. Men.

Laurier, Sir Wilfrid (1841-1919). Born at St. Lin, Quebec. A Canadian for eight generations, his earliest Canadian ancestor having come to Canada from Normandy exactly two hundred years before his birth, Educated at L’Assomption College, the alma mater of Joseph Papin, Léon Simeon Morin, Louis A. Jette, Arthur Dansereau and Israel Tarte. Studied law at McGill University; admitted to the bar, 1864; and three years later opened his law office in Arthabaskaville, or St. Christophe as it was then called, combining with his practice the editing of a weekly newspaper, Le Défricheur. He entered public life in 1871, being elected to the provincial assembly for Arthabaska-Drummondville in that year. His earliest political views had been those of the Rouges, but he soon came to adopt a broader policy. Confederation to him became the means of solving a difficult and dangerous racial problem. “The ideal of each race,” he wrote, “was henceforth the progress of the common country, and the supreme pride of both to proclaim themselves above all Canadian.” In his own province he was the determined opponent of the extreme demands of ultramontanism. Laurier quickly made his mark in provincial politics, came to be regarded as the leader of Liberalism in Quebec; in 1874 was elected to the House of Commons for Drummond-Arthabaska, and in 1877 entered the cabinet of Alexander Mackenzie as minister of inland revenue. Defeated in the by-election in Drummond-Arthabaska, he was elected for Quebec East the same year. Elected for Saskatchewan, 1896, for Wright, 1904, for Ottawa, 1908, for Soulanges, 1911. Succeeded Edward Blake as leader of the Opposition, 1887, and in 1896 became prime minister, taking the office of president of the council. He remained in office until 1911, when his party was defeated in the general elections, and Laurier once more became leader of the Opposition. He was a member of the Joint High Commission which sat at Quebec, 1898; represented Canada at the Colonial Trade Conference in London, 1902, the Imperial Conference in London, 1907, and the Imperial Colonial Conference, 1911. Appointed an Imperial Privy Councillor, 1897, and G. C. M. G. the same year. Awarded the gold medal of the Cobden Club in recognition of his services to the cause of international free trade. A Grand Officer of the French Legion of Honour, 1897. A brilliant statesman and political tactician, he could handle a delicate question with infinite tact, but could also speak in no unmeasured terms when his feelings were deeply aroused. In 1885 he denounced the hanging of Louis Riel, as in 1875 he had voted for amnesty. In the boundary dispute of 1882 he supported the contention of Ontario. In transportation questions, he had taken the critical opposition attitude when the Canadian Pacific was under construction, but adopted a much broader policy in later years. In matters of trade and tariff, his views varied somewhat with the years, but might perhaps be described as those of a moderate protectionist. He talked at one time of “free trade as it is in England,” but never made any serious attempt to apply it to Canada. He believed in reciprocity with the United States, and gave England a preference in trade. As to the status of his country, he remained content with British connection, and was convinced that if any change lay in the future it might be independence, but not annexation to the United States. In the war years, he opposed conscription, and would have nothing to do with Union government. He died at Ottawa. Of his qualities as a man, one who had known him intimately said: “His instinctive honour, his kindliness and forgetfulness of self, that shining out of nobility and distinction of character which men call magnetism, made every man who entered his presence a better man for it.” Bib.: Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier; Skelton, Life and Letters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier; Dafoe, Sir Wilfrid Laurier; Skelton, The Day of Sir Wilfrid Laurier; DeCelles, Laurier et son Temps; McArthur, Sir Wilfrid Laurier; David, Laurier.

Lauzon, Jean de (1584-1666). Governor of New France, 1651-1656; had already been associated with the interests of the colony by reason of his position as president of the Company of New France, and had used his office to acquire the island of Montreal and Point Lévis opposite Quebec. His administration as governor was made odious not only by a long series of public mistakes, but by his too obvious intention of using the office to enrich himself and his sons. Returned to France in 1656; and died in Paris. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World; Parkman, Old Régime.

Lauzon-Charny, Charles de. Son of Jean de Lauzon, and administrator of New France after the departure of his father in 1656. During his father’s governorship, he had been invested with the high-sounding but empty title of Grand Maítre des Eaux et Forêts de la Nouvelle France. Returned to France in 1656; entered the church; and came back to Canada in 1659 with Laval, who made him a member of the Ecclesiastical Council. Later he became grand vicar and director of the seminary. Returned to France, and died, probably at La Rochelle, in 1690. Bib.: Douglas, Old France in the New World.

Laval-Montmorency, François de (1623-1708). Born at Montigny-sur-Avre, France. Inherited the patrimony of Montigny, but gave it up later to his brother Jean-Louis. Became a student in the college of La Flèche, and completed his classical education at the College de Clermont at Paris. In 1647 he received holy orders, and was appointed archdeacon of Evreux. In 1654 nominated as one of three bishops to be sent to Asia, but the plan fell through owing to opposition of the Portuguese court. On the recommendation of the Jesuits, Laval was in 1658 consecrated apostolic vicar of New France, with the title of Bishop of Petræa. He embarked at La Rochelle in April, 1659, and arrived at Quebec in June. Complications at once arose owing to the fact that the archbishop of Rouen claimed jurisdiction over the colony and had already appointed a grand vicar, the Abbé de Queylus; and there were also in Canada the grand vicars of the Jesuits and the Sulpicians. Laval was a man not only of great piety but also of inflexible will, and before long succeeded in demonstrating that he and he alone was the chief representative of the Church in New France. Friction then developed with the governor D’Argenson over the sale of brandy to the Indians, Laval being determined to prevent a traffic which the governor was inclined to support as a means of revenue. The bishop, as a matter of fact, quarrelled with all the governors sent to Canada during his term of office, D’Avaugour, Mézy and Frontenac. They were as determined to uphold the civil authority as he to uphold the authority of the Church. In 1662 he returned to France and made representations to the Court which resulted in the recall of D’Avaugour. He sailed for Canada the following year, with the new governor, and immediately took steps to found at Quebec the seminary which was ultimately to develop into the University of Laval. In this educational project he took the deepest interest; he himself lived at the seminary, and transferred to it his personal income. He secured gifts of money from the king and Colbert, and acquired the seigniory of Beaupré, which was afterwards exchanged for Île Jesus. In 1669, during one of his pastoral visits to Montreal, he authorized the building of a church, which survived until 1830. In 1672, having found his rank as vicar apostolic a handicap in dealing with the civil authorities, he sailed for France, and, after prolonged negotiations between the Court and the Pope, Laval was made bishop of Quebec in 1674, with jurisdiction over all Canada. Soon after his return to Canada the following year, he created an ecclesiastical court to deal with charges brought against the clergy. Frontenac was now governor, and his attitude toward Laval may be judged by his letters to Colbert. “Nearly all the disorders existing in New France,” he says, “have their origin in the ambition of the ecclesiastics, who wish to add to their spiritual authority an absolute power over temporal matters.” The bishop on the other hand complained bitterly of the impediments thrown by the governor in the way of the effective ecclesiastical control of the people. In 1684 he sailed for France, tendered his resignation to the king, and recommended Saint-Vallier (q.v.) as his successor. His heart was still in Canada, however. In 1685 he sent forty-two thousand francs to the seminary for the maintenance of missionaries, and bequeathed to it all his furniture, books, etc. In 1688 he returned to Quebec, a few months after the official appointment of Saint-Vallier as bishop. His dominating personality was still active and drove him into a disagreement with his successor over certain questions of administration. In fact, his presence in Canada at that time must have been anything but a blessing to St. Vallier. Laval died in Quebec. Bib.: Têtu, Esquisse Biographique de Laval; Parkman, Old Régime; Gosselin, François de Montmorency-Laval; Colby, Canadian Types of the Old Régime; De Brumath, Bishop Laval; LeSueur, Count Frontenac.

Laval University. Founded by Laval in 1668, as the Quebec Seminary. Opened in a house belonging to the widow of Guillaume Couillard, at the entrance to the governor’s garden. Corner-stone of the first permanent building laid in 1678; enlarged, 1701; restored and enlarged after the fire of 1866. Granted a royal charter in 1852, at the instance of Lord Elgin, then governor-general. See also Laval; Montreal, University of. Bib.: Hamel, Sketch of Laval University in Canada: An Ency., vol. iv; Roy, L’Université Laval (Revue Canadienne, vol. xliii); Doughty, Cradle of New France.

La Valtrie, Séraphin Marganne, Sieur de (1643-1699). A native of St. Benoit de Paris. Obtained a lieutenancy in the Lignières Regiment; took service under De Tracy, 1664, and came to Canada the following year. Granted the seigniory of Lavalterie in 1672; sent to the western posts as commandant, and replaced by La Durantaye, 1683; accompanied Denonville on his expedition against the Iroquois, 1687. Bib.: Sulte, Le Régiment de Carignan (R. S. C., 1902).

Laverdière, Charles Honoré (1826-1873). Historian. Educated at Laval University. Studied for the church and ordained priest. Joined the faculty of Laval, and became university librarian. Bib.: Edited the Works and Voyages of Champlain; and completed Ferland’s Cours d’Histoire du Canada; author of Histoire du Canada; Samuel de Champlain; edited, with Abbé Casgrain, the Journal des Jesuites, 1645-1668.