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The First Part of this book is intended for pupils so far advanced as to be able to distinguish the Parts of Speech. The author’s object has been to teach elementary English Grammar as simply as is consistent with the honest recognition of difficulties, and not to accumulate masses of information that might be of use to foreigners, but must be useless to English boys.

I have been accused, by a very friendly and favourable reviewer, of “unkindness” in completely ignoring the “Article” in my introductory treatise How to Tell the Parts of Speech. It has occurred to me, in consequence, to prefix to this work a Glossary of Grammatical Terms—many of them, let us hope, obsolete or obsolescent. Here the pupil may now and then refresh his memory as to the meaning of Article, Genitive, Nominative, Accusative, Case, Proper Noun, Conjugation, Decline, and the like; and by this means he will be able in satisfy himself that many of these terms, when applied to the Grammar of his native tongue, are absolutely superfluous or erroneous. It is also probable that ready access to a Glossary, explaining etymologically Cardinal, Inflection, Apostrophe, Climax, Bathos, Verse, &c., may in many cases be of positive as well as negative benefit.

The Exercises are specially written to illustrate the rules. This has involved some labour; but I am convinced that the labour was well spent. A pupil cannot be regarded as thoroughly tested in his knowledge of grammatical rules till he has applied them to connected narrative. As long as he is tested in nothing but short sentences, you can never feel sure that his accuracy is not merely mechanical.

Paragraphs 1—82 are of a much simpler character than those that follow; and the pupil should be well drilled in them before passing onward. The grammar-lessons of three or four months may be very well spent in teaching boys how to select the Subjects and Objects of the different Verbs in a Sentence, and a month or two more may well be given to Relative Sentences. Indeed, if the majority of a class of boys, between 11 and 12 years old, can, after six months’ training in grammar, parse “jay” in:—

I should, myself, think the six months spent to very good purpose.

Paragraphs 82—162 are decidedly more difficult, and constitute work for a higher class. The chapter on the Subjunctive Mood is put last, out of its place, owing to the extreme difficulty of the subject.

The chapter on Irregularities, Paragraphs 191—230, is of a different nature from the former part of the book. It is intended to prepare the pupil for Part II., and is an attempt to apply the principles of scholarship to the explanation of the irregularities of English Grammar. These principles are few, and capable of brief enunciation, viz., (1) that every irregularity is a deviation from a “regula” or rule; (2) that there must be some attracting force to produce this deviation; (3) that this attracting force is generally one of three causes, of which the “confusion of two constructions” is by far the most common. Simple and brief though they are, these principles require, as every teacher knows, careful and constant inculcation before the pupil is imbued with them. But when the pupil has once mastered them, he has the key to unlock any idiomatic irregularity, in any language—always provided that he is well acquainted with the particular language in its regular expressions.

Not much space is given to Analysis; but perhaps as much as the subject deserves. If this subject is to be taught at all—and there is much in it that constitutes a useful mental exercise—it ought, in the opinion of the author, to be disencumbered of its present technicalities, and to be taught more logically. For example, in most treatises on Analysis, it is assumed that, in such a sentence as:—

—the words “feeling the man’s hand” are an Adjective Phrase, or “Enlargement of the Subject.” But nothing surely ought to be more obvious than that (whatever the grammatical construction may be) “feeling” here means “when, or because I felt,” and is nearly the same as “on feeling;” so that the words in question form really an Adverbial, and not an Adjectival Phrase. It is almost startling that this Adjectival error should have been gravely inculcated for a generation in the best, as in the worst, treatises on English Grammar. Possibly the servile imitation of Latin Grammar—the ruin of all good English teaching—has been at work here, as in so many other cases, assimilating the English to the Latin Active Participle, and ignoring the extent to which the English Participle has been merged in the English Verbal Noun.^[1]

For these reasons, in the Chapter on Analysis, several changes have been introduced with the view of discarding technicalities: and the terms Phrase, Clause and Sentence, are rigidly used according to their definitions. (See Glossary and also Par. 239.)^[2]

In the “Hints on Spelling,” Paragraphs 266—291, an attempt has been made to give explanations, or suggestions of possible explanations, of a few among the thousand anomalies that strew this wilderness and despair of teachers. The author has at least succeeded (Par. 283) in impressing upon himself, what he never could remember before, the right spelling of “succeed,” “proceed,” and “exceed.” Whether others will derive the same benefit from the explanation is perhaps doubtful; but the mere fact that an explanation exists is a just cause for thanksgiving. Mr. Laurie’s useful Manual of Spelling has been of great service in the composition of this chapter.

Part II. Chapter I., is explained by its title, “Difficulties and Irregularities in Modern English.” It is intended for the higher (not for the highest) classes in our first-grade schools. Here I must acknowledge very large obligations to Mätzner’s two volumes on English Syntax. Adopting his arrangement, I have selected from these two volumes every difficulty that appeared likely to be a difficulty to an English boy—I believe I may add, in many cases, to an English man—as distinct from a foreigner. A few examples from Campbell, Scott, and Byron have been quoted from Mätzner, unverified; but in such cases, the reader is always warned by a foot-note. The vast majority of the examples have been modified or re-written to illustrate the difficulty under consideration, or they are the fruits of my own reading.

In this part of the work it has been of course necessary to illustrate modern English by older English of different periods: and here, while again acknowledging my obligations to Mätzner, I must also add the name of Dr. Morris, whose elaborate Historical Outlines of English Accidence—a book that, the more you study it, impresses you the more with the feeling that much is left to study—have been laid under large contributions for this part of my work, and more especially for the Appendix on the “Growth of the English language.” Here I have also to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Mr. Skeat, who was kind enough to correct the proof-sheets of the Appendix, and from whose edition of the Gospel of St. Mark^[3] I derived great help in obtaining an insight into the “Period of Confusion” in early English. I have had the less hesitation in occasionally referring to statements and examples about early English found in the Shakespearian Grammar, because all of these were supervised and many of them originated by Mr. Skeat, but for whose kindness and learning I should scarcely have ventured on ground of which it may be said, no less than of the field of criticism, that—

The chapter on Poetical Constructions will, I hope, be found as useful as any in the book. It is an attempt to draw out in grammatical detail the principles of poetry as laid down by Professor Seeley and myself in English Lessons for English People, and to lead the pupil to see the reason and the beauty of “poetical irregularities.”

In the Appendix on the “Growth of the English Language,” I have ventured so far to differ from Dr. Morris, in his account of the “Periods of the English Language,” as to assign a separate period to the sixteenth century, and also to give names to the several periods. I do not think boys will find it easy to remember the periods without epithets of a rather more picturesque nature than ordinal numbers. I have also added some remarks on the Elizabethan period.

A few tables of the Early Forms are added in the Appendix with the view of illustrating remarks scattered through the book. But no attempt has been made to give any complete system of Accidence. To try to do this completely, in the face of Dr. Morris’s Accidence, would have been superfluous: and to do it imperfectly, in the way in which it has been done in many Grammars, under the title of “Etymology,” would have been worse than superfluous, mystifying English children by telling them what, when they know what well enough already, and need only to be told why. But to tell the why of English Accidence requires—and it is useless disguising the fact—a great deal of knowledge in the teacher and not a little in the pupil. If it is to be done at all, it should be done thoroughly, with the aid of such a book as Dr. Morris’s, and by pupils old enough to appreciate it.

Consequently, though the pupil will find “strong” and “weak” verbs defined in the Glossary, he will see no lists of them in the book. Lists of irregular plurals will also be missing; the teacher will look in vain for focus, foci; datum, data; nebula, nebulæ. The only apparent sacrifice to the mania for “learning something by heart” is this, that the modern verb will be found “conjugated” in the Appendix to Part II. But this has been done, not to give the pupil something to learn by heart, but to enable him to compare the old verb with the new at a glance. Throughout the book, the author has endeavoured to keep in view the main object of a teacher teaching English grammar to English children, viz., to teach, not so much what as why.

The division of the book into parts, the first of which is differently arranged from the second, might cause some difficulty in referring, were it not that a full Alphabetical Index is inserted at the end—an appendage that, in the Author’s opinion, may fairly claim to be accepted as a compensation, in a book of this kind, for many faults of non-arrangement or mis-arrangement.

In passing the book through the press I have derived most valuable assistance from the two gentlemen whose names I had occasion to mention in the preface to How to Tell the Parts of Speech, viz., Mr. G. S. Brockington, one of the Assistant Masters of King Edward’s School, Birmingham, and Mr. T. W. Chambers, B.A., Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, one of the Assistant Masters of the City of London School, whose sound judgment and practical experience have frequently induced me to modify or even re-cast large portions of the First Part. I must also mention two others among my colleagues, Mr. T. Todd, and Mr. James Pirie, M.A., whose criticism and corrections have been of very great service.

Lastly, while expressing my obligations to the admirable “Shakespeare Lexicon,” compiled by Dr. Schmidt, and published by Messrs. Williams & Norgate, I may be also permitted, coming nearer home, to say that I have gained much help and many apt examples from the inspection of the proof-sheets of a Complete Concordance to the Poetical Works of Pope, compiled by my father, and now in course of publication.

Few of the terms explained below are used by the author, and many of them are misused or badly constructed, e.g. “article,” “accusative.” But, as they are used in many grammatical treatises, it has been thought desirable to explain them, especially as an explanation is sometimes the best means of proving them to be superfluous or erroneous, when applied to English Grammar.

The References, when not otherwise stated, are to the Paragraphs in How to Parse.

The meaning given opposite to each word is the Etymological meaning. For a fuller or more accurate definition the pupil is referred to the Paragraph mentioned in each case.

It is assumed that the ten following Definitions are known to the pupil:—

1. A Noun, is a name of any kind (page 19^[1]).

2. A Pronoun is a word used for a Noun (page 21^[1]).

3. An Adjective is a word that can be put before a Noun either to distinguish it, or to point out its number or amount (page 32^[1]).

4. A Verb is a word that can make a statement (page 39^[1]).

5. An Adverb is a word that answers to the question “how?” “when?” “where?” or “how far is this true?” (page 54^[1]).

6. A Preposition is a word that can be placed before a Noun or a Pronoun, so that the Preposition and Noun or Pronoun together are equivalent to an Adjective or Adverb (page 76^[1]).

7.^[2] A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a statement, question, or command (page 45^[1]).

8.^[2] Any other collection of words, having a meaning, is called a Phrase (page 45^[1]), or Clause. See Glossary.

9. A Conjunction is a word that joins two sentences together (page 85^[1]).

10. A Relative Pronoun is a Conjunctive Pronoun used so as to refer to a preceding Noun or Pronoun called the Antecedent (page 125^[1]).

1. The Subject of a Verb making a statement is the word or words answering to the question “who?” or “what?” before the Verb (Par. 1).

2. The Object of a Verb or Preposition is the word or words answering to the question “whom?” or “what?” after the Verb or Preposition (14^[1]).

3. When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction introducing a new Sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative (24).

4. The Antecedent must sometimes be supplied from the sentence (25).

5. The Relative is sometimes omitted (26).

6. Some Pronouns are used Interrogatively, Conjunctively, and Relatively (28).

7. The Uses or Cases of a Noun are four, viz. Subject, Object,^[2] Possessive, and Vocative (32).

8. The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Singular (34).

9. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding ’s to the Singular or Plural form (37).

10. An Adjective has three Degrees of Comparison, viz. Positive, Comparative, and Superlative (42).

11. To form the Comparative and Superlative, add -er, -est to Positives of one Syllable. “More” and “most” are used in other cases (43).

12. A Verb that can have an Object is called Transitive; a Verb that cannot, is called Intransitive.^[3]

13. The Passive Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject (60).

14. The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object (61).

15. A Participle can be distinguished by the fact that it can be, in part, replaced by a Conjunctive word (66).

16. Each Voice has four Moods: Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive (70).

17. The Infinitive Mood speaks of an action without defining the doer (70).

18. The Indicative Mood definitely points out an action (70).

19. The Imperative Mood commands an action (70).

20. The Subjunctive Mood expresses condition, purpose, wish, &c. (70).

21. Verbs have three Tenses: Past, Present, and Future (71).

22. Each Tense has four “States” of Action: the Indefinite, the Complete, the Incomplete, and the Complete Post-Continuous (73, 74).

23. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number (78).

24. “May,” “can,” “must,” “will,” “shall,” “let,” &c. are called Auxiliary Verbs (95).

25. “To” is omitted in the Infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs, and after “see,” “hear,” “feel” (96).

26. An Infinitive may be used (1) as a Noun; (2) as an Adverb; (3) as an Adjective.

27. The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase answering to the question “For, or, to, whom?” “For, or, to, what?” when used after the Verb and the Direct Object (118).

28. When an Active Verb taking two Objects is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object (122).

29. Some Verbs, generally Intransitive, can take an Object of a nature akin or cognate to the Verb, called the Cognate Object (125).

30. The Object is sometimes used Adverbially to denote extension, price, point of time (127—131).

31. The Subject, generally with a Participle, is sometimes used Adverbially (135).

32. A Noun or Pronoun, not Subject or Object of a Verb, but so connected with another Noun or Pronoun that we can understand between them the words “I mean,” “that is to say,” &c., is said to be in Apposition to the latter (137).

33. Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects (138).

34. The (1) Intransitive Verbs “is,” “looks,” “seems,” “appears,” &c., and (2) the Transitive Verbs “make,” “create,” “appoint,” “deem,” “esteem,” being used to express identity, and, as it were, to place one Noun or Pronoun in apposition with another, may be called Verbs of Identity, or Appositional Verbs (147).

35. Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement; when Transitive, take an Objective Supplement (150).

36. “It” and “there” are sometimes irregularly used to prepare the way for the Subject or Object (151).

37. In a Conditional Sentence, (1) the Clause expressing the condition is called the Antecedent; (2) the Clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Consequent (167).

38. Auxiliary Verbs (when not following “if” or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, whenever they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs (181).

39. Whenever language is irregular, there is some cause for the irregularity (192).

40. The three principal causes of irregularity are I. Desire of brevity; II. Confusion of two constructions; III. Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction (198).

41. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that has only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb (245).

42. When several Simple Sentences are connected by “and,” “but,” “so,” “then,” &c., so that each sentence is, as it were, independent, and of the same rank as the rest, each is called a co-ordinate Sentence^[4] (246).

43. A Compound Sentence is a Sentence made up of Co-ordinate Sentences (247).

44. When a number of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not introduced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence (248).

45. Sentences connected with a Principal Sentence by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate^[4] (249).

46. A Complex Sentence is the whole Sentence formed by the combination of the Principal and Subordinate Sentences (250).

47. When a word passes from one form to another, a letter is often changed or doubled in order to preserve the original sound (266).

48. Final -e is dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel, but retained before an affix beginning with a consonant (270).

49. A monosyllable ending in -ll, when followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or when itself used as an affix, generally drops one -l (275).

50. If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by a vowel, then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant in the word is doubled, provided that the word is a monosyllable, or accented on the last syllable (277).

51. When a word is separated from its grammatical adjunct by any intervening Phrase, the Phrase should be preceded and followed by a comma^[5] (224).

1

All Verbs that make a statement must be accompanied by some Noun, or equivalent of a Noun, about which the statement is made:—

In each of the three examples above, if you ask the question “Who or what failed?” the answer, being the subject of our statement, is called the Subject of the Verb.

This leads us to a Definition:

The Subject of a Verb in a stating sentence is the word or collection of words answering to the question asked by putting “Who?” or “What?” before the Verb.^[1]

2 Caution I. If the Verb is accompanied by an Adverb, as—

—the Adverb should be repeated in the question:

3 Caution II. If the Verb is accompanied by words necessary to give the meaning, as—

—these words may be repeated in the question:

4

In a Questioning Sentence, e.g.—

—ask “Did who come?” Answer: “Did John come?” Therefore “John” is the Subject.

5 Caution. If the Sentence only answers our question by repeating “Who?” “What?” “Which?” &c. as—

—then, “Who?” “What?” “Which?” are themselves the Subjects.

6

The Subject in a Commanding Sentence is almost always “you”; or, in Poetry, “thou” or “ye.” It is generally not expressed:

7 Caution. Where a Verb follows a Conjunction, as—

—it is useful sometimes to repeat the Conjunction before “Who?” or “What?”:—

The Conjunctions “and,” “but,” “for,” “then,” “so,” “therefore,” &c. need not be repeated.

Find out the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:^[1]—

Once upon a time there* lived^[2] a mighty king whose* name was Xerxes, and he reigned over Persia. Does every boy know where Persia is? If you do not know, look it out in the Map. Though he was king of the Persians, and reigned over almost all the nations of the East, yet he was not satisfied with this; nothing but the whole world could satisfy him. So, learning that a little nation lived not far from him, on the other side of the Ægean sea, and had not yet submitted to him, the king determined to conquer it. This nation, which consisted of several independent cities—Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and many others—was called altogether by the name of “Greeks.” All the Greeks together, when they mustered all their fighting men, did not amount to a hundred thousand, while Xerxes was obeyed by more* than a million of soldiers. Besides, the Greeks were often divided against themselves, one city fighting against another, so that they seemed to have no chance against the Great King—for this was the name by which the King of Persia was known.

Xerxes did not believe for a moment that the Greeks, few and divided as* they were, would resist him. So before he collected an army, he determined to try peaceable means. Accordingly he sent heralds to all the principal cities in Greece, and bade them demand from each city “earth and water.” What made him ask for that? Why, you must know this was the Persian way of demanding obedience and subjection; for, among them, giving earth was the sign of surrendering their land to the Great King, and giving water meant that they surrendered their sea and navy to him. The heralds therefore, with this message from Xerxes, went forth on their several journeys.

“Who lived?” “A mighty king,” Subject.

“Does every boy know?” “Does who know?” “Every boy,” Subject.

“If who do not know?” “You,” Subject.

“Look it out.” A command: Subject “you,” implied.

“Though who reigned?” “He,” Subject. (Note that reigned is joined by the Conjunction “and” to the Verb was, and both these Verbs follow the Conjunction “though.” We therefore repeat “though,” in asking the question to find the Subject. Note, also, that the answer is “he,” not “Xerxes.” The answer must always be a word in the sentence.)

“Who or what could satisfy him?” “Nothing but the whole world,” Subject.

“Who or what had (not yet) submitted?” “A little nation,” Subject. These words are also the Subject of lived, which is joined to had submitted by “and.”

“Who or what was called?” “This nation,” Subject.

“Who or what did (not) amount?” “All the Greeks,” Subject.

“Who was obeyed?” “Xerxes,” Subject.

“Who were often divided?” “The Greeks,” Subject.

“Who seemed?” “They,” Subject.

“What made him ask?” Here the answer is the same as the question, viz. “What;” and “What” is the Subject of “made.”

“What was (the sign of surrendering)?” “Giving earth.” Subject.

8

The Subject of a Verb expressing a statement generally (a) comes before the Verb; but it (b) sometimes comes after the Verb, e.g. when “there” or an emphatic Adverb, or some other emphatic word, comes at the beginning of the sentence:—

9 In Poetry, the Subject often comes after the Verb (See Pars. 513—4):—

10 In Questions, the Subject is generally (1) in the middle of the Verb, but sometimes (2) after the Verb—

—unless the Subject happens to be “Who” or “What”—

Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:—

When the heralds had arrived at the cities of Greece, and delivered their message, they were received differently in different places. Some cities gave earth and water, because they were afraid of the Great King; others, because they were jealous of their neighbours, and hoped the Great King would help them and destroy their enemies. But the men of Athens and of Sparta would give neither earth nor water. Indeed the Athenians were so angry at the message, that they threw one of the heralds into a pit, and bade him take his earth thence; another they threw into a well, telling him that he could find water there.

Xerxes, when he heard how his heralds had been treated, and how the men of Athens and Sparta had refused earth and water, determined at once to levy an army and to conquer Greece. Never before was so vast a host collected. They drank whole rivers dry.* The Hellespont, across which they had to pass into Greece, was bridged with boats: a promontory (its name was Mount Athos) was cut through to give a passage to their fleet. And now this monstrous army, amounting to a million at least, had penetrated Greece, and was marching southward. Still no one ventured to oppose them, and in a few days the hosts of Xerxes, with undiminished numbers, had reached a pass called Thermopylæ.

11

The Subject may be—

1. A Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective put for Noun:—

2. A group of Nouns connected by “and”:—

3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause:—

Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise:—

“What is a pass?” perhaps you ask. A narrow path with steep mountains on both sides is called a pass. In this case there* were mountains on one side, and, on the other side, was a marshy place stretching down to the sea, so that there* was only room for a cart or two to pass. In such a place, to resist a host was an easy matter for a few* brave men. But, just then, the Greeks were terrified. To remain at Thermopylæ seemed to them certain death; so they determined to retreat. Then Leonidas, who was king of the Spartans, when he found that he could not persuade the other Greeks to remain, determined to remain by himself with a few* brave Spartans, to resist Xerxes, and to gain time for his countrymen. With him remained about three hundred men, and the* rest^* departed.

When Xerxes, after arriving at Thermopylæ, saw the handful of Spartans prepared to resist him, he laughed at them, and bade his soldiers bring them to him in chains. But the Persian soldiers, on advancing to the charge, found that their master was mistaken in his laughter. Charge after charge was made by the Persians, but to no purpose. The Persians were slain in hundreds, but the Greeks were neither taken nor driven back. That the Persians were no match for the Greeks was made evident even to the proud King Xerxes; and, when the sun set, he retired to his tent in great sorrow.

12

Supply what is wanting to complete the sense after the following Verbs and Prepositions:—

The best way to supply what is wanting is to repeat the Verb or Preposition, and ask whom? or what? (not before the Verb, as when you were finding the Subject, but) after the Verb.

For example, “Killed what?” Answer: “A hare.” “Towards what?” Answer: “Paris.”

Now “hare” is called the Object of the Verb “killed,” and “Paris” the Object of the Preposition “towards.”

13

“Object” means “put in the way.” Just as a target is put in the way of the marksman, and is called the object at which he shoots, so the word or group of words answering to the question whom? or what? after a Verb or Preposition, often denotes the object of the action of the Verb, or of the motion implied by the Preposition. For example, “the hare” is the object of the action of “killing”: “Paris” is the object of the motion implied in “towards.”

Hence the name “Object” is given to the words answering the question whom? or what? after the Verb or Preposition, even in some cases where the name may seem misapplied.

For example, in “He is travelling from Paris,” you can hardly say that Paris is the object of motion. Nevertheless, in conformity with the general rule, “Paris” is called the “Object” of the Preposition “from.”

14 The word or collection of words answering to the question whom? or what? after a Verb or Preposition is called the Object.^[1]

15

The Object, like the Subject, must be a Noun, or the equivalent of a Noun:—

1. A Noun or Pronoun:—

2. A group of Nouns connected by “and”:—

3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause:—

16

The Object generally follows the Verb or Preposition, but not always. For example:—

I. When the Object is an Interrogative or Relative Pronoun:—

17 II. When the Object is emphatic:—

18 III. In Poetry (514):—

19

Some Verbs denote (1) states, e.g., “be,” “remain,” “seem,” “appear,” and generally all forms of “be” followed by the Verbal forms in -ed, -en, &c.; others denote (2) actions not regarded as having an external object, e.g., “run,” “walk,” &c.

These two classes of Verbs do not take a Grammatical Object. The former class suggests the question “who?” not “whom?” e.g., “He seems ——”; “seems who or what?” Answer, “He seems a rascal.” Here “rascal” answers to the question “who?” (not “whom?”) and is not called the Object of “seems.” See Par. 147.

Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise:—

Next day the Persians attacked the Greeks again, but to no purpose. Not the slightest impression did they make on the little Greek phalanx. Their gold and silver armour was no match for the steel spears of the brave Greeks. Besides, the Greeks were fighting for their country, while the Persians did not want to fight, and were driven to the battle with the lash. So the sun set again, and Xerxes found that he was again defeated. But, that night, while the King was angrily thinking that he should have to retreat, a traitor came to his tent and offered to show him a path over the mountains, by which the Persians might come down behind the Greeks, and thus (might) attack them in the rear as well as in front. At once, a Persian battalion set out under the guidance of the traitor, and by sunrise next morning, the Persians, with two vast hosts, had shut in^[1] the little band of Greeks between the sea, the mountains, and their enemies.

“Attacked whom?” “The Greeks,” Object.

“They did (not) make what?”^[2] “The slightest impression,” Object.

“For what?” “The steel swords of the brave Greeks,” Object.

“For what?” “Their country,” Object.

“Did (not) want what?” “To fight,” Object.

“With what?” “The lash,” Object.

“Found what?” “That he was again defeated,” Object.

“Was (angrily) thinking what?” “That he should have to retreat,” Object.

“To what?” “His tent,” Object.

“Offered what?” “To show him a path over the mountains,” Object.

The rest you can answer for yourself.

20 Many parts of the Verb that take no Subject may take an Object.

For example, you cannot ask “Who or what killing?” but you can ask “killing whom or what?” Consequently “killing” can have no Subject, but may have an “Object.” And so may “to kill.”

Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise:^[1]—

Leonidas saw at once that he and his men had no chance of escape. But instead of lamenting, he seemed delighted at the thought of dying honourably. He told his men to clean their armour and weapons, and to prepare themselves as if for a feast. Then, when the sun was sinking, “Take your suppers,” said he, “and remember that you will take your breakfast elsewhere.” But in that little band there was not one man that feared to die; for a soldier’s death was counted an honourable, and not a terrible thing, among the Greeks. When night came, out marched the Greeks against the army of Xerxes. Wherever they went, they carried death and terror with them; they overturned the tent of Xerxes and slew his guards. The proud king was forced to flee for his life; and, if the night could have lasted for a night and a day, perhaps they might have destroyed the whole of that vast host. But, when day began to dawn, the enemy discovered the small number of the Greeks, and took courage. The Greeks were weary with slaying their thousands, the Persians were fresh; the Greeks were three hundred men, the Persians were more than three hundred thousand. So the Persians gathered round the Greeks, attacking them with slings and darts and spears, because they did not dare to attack them in close fight. When the Greeks charged, the Persians fled from them; when the Greeks retired, the Persians approached them. First one and then another of the Greeks fell beneath the shower of darts, others were wounded and could scarcely stand; but none would surrender. Before sunset, every Greek was slain, and the Persian army had gained the victory. But, from that day to the present (day), all men have honoured the names of Leonidas and his brave Greeks, who have left for us and for all men an example teaching us not to be afraid of dying honourably.

Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise:—

Tommy had heard from Mr. Barlow many stories about the taming of wild animals; so he thought to himself he should like to tame^[1] a pig. He had heard that the youngest animals are most easily tamed^[1]; so he chose out the youngest pig in the farm-yard, and approached it with some bread in his hand. “Come here, little pig,” said he; but the pig ran away. “Then I must fetch you,” cried Tommy, and, so saying, he caught it by the leg. The little pig squeaked, and the old sow, coming up, ran between Tommy’s legs, and knocked him down in the mud. “Who did all this mischief?” said Mr. Barlow, coming out that moment from the house. “That foolish pig,” said poor Tommy. “Oh! no,” replied Mr. Barlow, “that foolish boy.”

In doing the above Exercise, make three columns, thus:—

Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise:—

A lion, while* quietly sleeping, was surrounded by some mice. They began dancing round him, and at last^[2] one young mouse, bolder than* the rest,* jumped up on his body and scampered across his face. The lion awoke with a roar, and the mice ran away: but the young mouse was stopped by the lion’s* paw. “Spare me!” cried she, “and I will never disturb you again.” The lion good-humouredly took his paw off her, and lay down again. Some days afterwards, the lion was caught in a net spread by some huntsmen. In vain^[2] he roared and struggled: he found that his struggles only entangled him more in the net, and he cried in despair, “I have no chance of escaping.” Just then, up came the little mouse with a thousand brothers and sisters. To work they fell, gnawing the net, and in ten minutes the lion was released by the mice.

21

In the sentence “Bring the book that pleases you best,” what is the Subject of “pleases?” Perhaps you may ask the question in the usual way, “What pleases?” Answer, “the book.” But this is not right. “Book” is the Object of “bring.” “Bring what?” Answer, “the book.”

Now the same word is never both Object and Subject; so “book” cannot be the Subject of “pleases;” and the real Subject of “pleases” is the Relative Pronoun “that.”

You will generally answer questions of this kind rightly if you remember that the Relative Pronoun^[1] is in some sense a Conjunction, so that it joins together two sentences, one of which states, commands, &c., and may be called (Par. 248) the Principal Sentence; while the other—as it is introduced by the Relative Pronoun—may be called a Relative Sentence. If these Sentences are kept quite distinct—the Principal Sentence being first repeated and parsed by itself, and afterwards the Relative Sentence—the pupil will have no difficulty.

22 In parsing the Relative Sentence, the Noun or Pronoun for which the Relative Pronoun is used—that is, its Antecedent^[1]—should be written in brackets by the side of the Relative Pronoun. Thus, in parsing the Sentences of the next Exercise, write down the Principal and Relative Sentences as follows:—

If the Sentence contains two or three Relative Sentences, they may be taken separately, e.g. in the seventh Sentence of the following Exercise:—

The form who, or whom, will of itself tell you at once whether it is Subject or Object.

In parsing a Relative Pronoun, state—

1. Antecedent.

2. Subject of what Verb, or,

3. Object of what Verb or Preposition.

Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences:—

1. The jay that robbed the peacocks of their feathers was very soon punished for her robbery. 2. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed at when he began to bray. 3. The crow dropped the cheese, which the fox immediately snapped up. 4. The lion that spared the mouse was afterwards released by the mouse. 5. The travellers, all of whom had seen the chameleon, could not agree about its colour. 6. Shakespeare tells us that the man that does not love music is fit for murders and conspiracies. 7. The girl that I told you of, who counted her chickens before they were hatched, was taught a lesson that she never forgot. 8. Have you ever heard of Horatius Cocles, who defended the bridge against a host of enemies, and whom the Romans honoured by erecting a statue to his memory?

Write these down as follows:—

Find out the Subjects and Objects of all the Verbs in the foregoing sentences.

23

Note that the Relative Pronoun, when used as Object, precedes both the Subject and the Verb. The reason is that the Pronoun, serving the purpose of a Conjunction, has to precede the sentence that it joins to the Principal Sentence.

24 When a Parenthetical Sentence intervenes between the Relative Pronoun and its Verb, that sentence must be carefully separated from the Relative Sentence.

A Parenthetical sentence is a sentence inserted in the midst of another sentence, the latter being complete without the former.

The following are examples of sentences containing Relative Pronouns followed by Parenthetical sentences:—

In the following Exercise, the Conjunctional sentences are inserted between parenthetical marks; but the pupil must be prepared to parse the Relative hereafter without the aid of these marks. The following will be found a useful Rule:—

When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction (e.g. “though” above in (2)) introducing a new sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative.

Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following Exercise, stating the Antecedent, and the Verb or Preposition of which each is Subject or Object:—

Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about the ownership of the spectacles, which (so said the nose) were undoubtedly intended for him and not for his two neighbours the eyes; who, on their part (although they admitted that the nose had a share in the spectacles), yet claimed the largest share for themselves. The two ears, whom both parties accepted as judges, called on the tongue, who was counsel for both, to plead first the cause of the eyes, and then that of the nose. So the tongue began by saying that spectacles that had no eyes to look through them, were of no use; the word “spectacle,” which the Latins used to denote a “place for seeing,” proved, of itself, that the instrument was meant for seeing and not for smelling. The judges, who (though they became rather inattentive while Latin was being quoted) had listened with great patience to the arguments that the tongue brought forward, now desired to hear what the nose had to say. So the tongue, taking that side of the question, which he pleaded remarkably well, called attention to the saddle that was between the two glasses, which, said he, was clearly intended for the nose. He added, with great force, that, if the eyes were closed or even altogether removed, the spectacles would still remain faithfully in their place, but a man that suddenly lost his nose would certainly lose his spectacles as well—“which,”^[1] said he, “clearly proves that the nose is the owner of the spectacles. If a dog were placed between two claimants, should we not readily admit that the claimant to whom the dog went would be the rightful owner? My lords, the spectacles, which (because they have no power of motion) sit patiently there between my two clients, would clearly shew you, if they could move, to which claimant they adhered. Cut out the eye, the spectacles will sit unmoved: cast down the nose, the trusty spectacles will immediately follow their fallen master.”

Here the judges, declaring that what^[2] they had heard was enough to enable them to arrive at a decision, stopped the counsel, and at once decided in favour of the nose.

Write or repeat the Subjects and Objects of the Verbs italicized in the last Exercise.

25

Tell me the Antecedent of which in the following sentence:—

There is no Noun or Pronoun here that can be called the Antecedent of which. Which stands for “the ass’s beginning to bray,” or “the braying of the ass,” or some other words to be supplied from the previous sentence. In parsing which you must say, “which stands for an Antecedent to be supplied, viz. ‘the braying of the ass.’ ”

26

When the Relative would be the Object, it is often omitted:—

In Poetry it (Par. 520) is sometimes omitted, even where, if inserted, it would be the Subject:—

Write down the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the Relatives, as in the last Exercise:—

The sun had nearly set when Harry, having delivered the message he had brought, began to turn his steps home-wards. There was no moon, which^[1] (together with his ignorance of the neighbourhood) made him quicken his pace across the common. For some time he managed to keep the path, which was nothing but two cart ruts leading from one farm to another. Presently, however, a track that turned off to a gravel-pit, led him astray. When he had once gone wrong, he found that he could not find the path he had lost. Through brambles, over furze-bushes, he scrambled onward, till, at last, he fell into a deep pit which, having been left by the peat-cutters, had been filled with water oozing from the bog around, and would have drowned him, if he had not been able to swim. Suddenly, to his groat joy, he saw a light, which^[2] he wondered that he had not noticed before. He ran towards it, supposing it came from some cottage belonging to a shepherd he had seen in the morning keeping his sheep near the middle of the common. Just when he was close on the light, he fell into another deep pool, which was so broad that he had great difficulty in swimming across it. Scrambling out, he looked round for the light he was seeking; but to his surprise, it seemed to be behind him. Just at this moment another light appeared, straight before him, which, when he approached it, retired from him. Thinking it was the torch of some traveller that, like himself, had lost his way, he shouted to the man to stop, and ran towards him; but, instead of stopping, the light ran away faster than before, seeming to choose the most miry and boggy spots it could find, so that poor Harry soon fell a third time into the water.

27

The Pronouns “who,” “what,” “which,” were once always used Interrogatively:—

In time, questions of this kind were used with their answers, thus:—

Afterwards, for shortness, the two sentences were blended in one. Then, sometimes the whole of the Interrogative sentence was treated as a Noun—

But, more commonly, the Interrogative force of the first sentence was quite forgotten, and, “who” being treated like “that,” the two sentences became—

28 Again, when Sentence A was made the Object of a Verb in a preceding sentence, e.g. “I asked,” the second sentence lost its Interrogative force; and “who,” instead of being Interrogatively used, was used Conjunctively, so as to join the sentence “I asked” with the following words:—

Carefully distinguish the three uses:—

If you are asked where are the Antecedents of the Relatives “what” and “whoever,” you can often supply the Antecedents, thus:—

29 Sometimes, as in the fourth line of the next exercise, “what” may be parsed either as (1) Conjunctively, or as (2) Relatively used:—

Parse the italicized words, stating the Subjects and Objects of Verbs and Prepositions:—

Harry’s* efforts had almost exhausted him. Wet, weary, and almost in despair, he stood shivering on the pool’s* brink, looking at the waters from which he had escaped, not knowing what he should do. Another light began to dance before him, but the chase he had had after the light already, made him decide not to pursue it. “I have had enough of following you, Mr. Traveller,”* said he; “yet what shall I do? If I stand here much longer, the little strength I have will be exhausted; yet I do not know which way to turn, and what I have seen of this common convinces me that a man that does not know the road well, may go on walking round and round for hours and only come back to the place he started from.” Just then the clouds, which, while he had been wandering about, had hitherto covered the sky, now parted and showed a few stars. Among them was a constellation he knew very well, called the Great Bear. Then, all at once, what Mr. Barlow had told him occurred to his mind, that two of the Great Bear’s* stars always point to the Pole-star, which is always in the North. Now he knew that the farm he had lately left was six miles to the south of his home, so that the path he ought to take, lay to the north. Off he started at once, keeping his eyes on the Pole-star, which, though it led him through more brambles and furze and pools, yet at last brought him out of the common. When he came home, he told his father about the moving lights, which, his father informed him, were called Will o’ the Wisps, or Jack o’ Lanterns. Those lights came from the marshes, and it* was* the wind* that* made* them shake and dance about—which poor Harry mistook for the motion of a traveller.

Words marked * are not to be parsed for the present.

30

The different forms of the same words, as, (1) “like,” “likes,” “liked;” (2) “man,” “man’s,” “men;” (3) “quick,” “quicker,” “quickest,” are called Inflections.

The word “Inflection” means a “bending,” or slight alteration.

31 Some words in a sentence are inflected to suit or agree with other words with which they are put.

For example, we say “He likes me;” but, if “he” is altered into “they,” “likes” must be altered into “like” to agree with “they.”

The rules for the “putting together” or arrangement of words so as to agree with one another, are called Rules of Syntax (syn-, together; taxis, putting).

32

I. A Noun may be used in the

II. Again, a Noun in a sentence may be used as—

33 These Uses, inasmuch as they represent the condition or case in which the Noun stands relatively to other words in the Sentence, are sometimes called “Cases.”

34

I. The Plural use of a Noun is denoted by an Inflection, which is generally formed according to the following Rule:—

The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Singular; as apple, apples.

35 To this rule there are some exceptions well known to all English children. The reason for the exceptions generally is, that the regular Plural would be harsh and hard to pronounce: hence for “churchs” we say “churches,” and for “calfs,” “calves.”

36 Some of our irregular Plurals are remains of old Plural forms, and are made by—

In some cases the modern Plural is derived from an old disused Singular. For example, the old Singular forms, “flie,” “citie,” are retained in the modern Plurals, “flies,” “cities.”

In other cases words (1) early introduced into the language received (and retain) the old -e, while (2) words, with similar terminations, later introduced, are spelt without -e:—

See Par. 283; also Morris’s Historical Outlines of English Accidence, p. 95.

37 II. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding ’s to the Singular or Plural form, e.g. “sun,” “sun’s;” “children,” “children’s.”

The mark (’), called an Apostrophe (see Glossary), denotes that something is omitted. In Early English there was a vowel instead of the Apostrophe.

The Apostrophe serves the purpose of distinguishing the Possessive, e.g. “sun’s” from the Plural “suns.”

When the Plural Noun ends in -s, the Possessive -s is omitted, and nothing is added but the Apostrophe: “boys’ books.” This is also the case in the Singular, where a Singular Noun of more than two syllables ends in -s, e.g. “Lycurgus’ laws.”

The other uses of Nouns have no Inflections to denote them.^[1]

38

The uses of Pronouns are the same as those of Nouns, except that (1) some of the Pronouns, e.g. “I,” “he,” cannot be used Vocatively; (2) instead of being used Possessively, they have Possessive Adjectives formed from them.

These Possessive Adjectives are really old Possessive Inflections or Cases of the Pronouns, which have now ceased to be recognized as Cases. See Par. 569.

The Inflections of the Personal Pronouns are as follows:—

39 The Interrogative and Relative Pronoun has (1) Subject, “who;” (2) Object, “whom;” (3) Possessive Adjective, “whose.” The Inflections are the same for Singular and Plural.

A few Adjectives used as Pronouns have Plural Inflections, e.g. “these,” “those,” “others.”

40

In parsing a Noun or Pronoun, state:—

Notice that a Possessive Noun often has an Adjective joined to it: e.g. “this boy’s book.” Here “this” points out “boy’s” not “book.”

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in Exercise XII. those marked * as well as others, thus:—

Answer the rest for yourself.

41 I. Use.—The use of an Adjective is to point out, qualify, or “enumerate,” a certain Noun.^[1]

42 II. Inflections—There are three degrees (degree means step) in most Adjectives, e.g. “long.”

(1) “Longer” of two things, i.e. long when compared with one other thing. This we call the Comparative degree.

(2) “Longest” of more than two. This is, as it were, carried above the Comparative degree, and we therefore call it the Superlative degree (super- above, lat- carried).

In poetry the Superlative inflection is sometimes used, without any notion of comparison, to mean “very.”

(3) “Long,” without any thought of comparison at all, but simply and positively long. This is called the Positive degree.

43 To form the Comparative and Superlative, add—

These forms sound as though they had only two syllables, e.g. “happier,” “nobler.” Hence the exceptional formation.

(3) More and most in other cases.

“More,” “most,” are not Inflections, but substitutes for Inflections. A few disyllabic Adjectives are occasionally found with -er, -est, e.g. “sublimer.” But this license is best reserved for Poetry.

(4) Other formations are quite irregular, e.g. not “good-er,” but “bet-ter,” from an old form “bet;” so “worse.” “Every” has no Inflections.

Some few Adjectives (e.g. “these”) have a Plural Inflection; but these are so few that they need not be considered. There was once a Definite form in -e, of which perhaps “olden” retains a trace (Morris).

44

In parsing an Adjective, state—

I. Degree of Comparison.

II. Function of Adjective, i.e. whether it qualifies, defines, enumerates, &c.

This may be found by answering the question, “What does the Adjective tell me?”

III. Noun or Pronoun, qualified, defined, enumerated, &c.

Where the Noun is omitted, as in “I do not like these books; are they the best (books) that you have?”—you may say that “best” qualifies the Noun “books,” implied or understood.

Parse the Adjectives in Exercise I., thus:—

The other Adjectives in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed.

45

I. Uses. An Adverb may be used with—

This is a short way of saying “Even (so wakeful a poet as) Homer;” so that, in reality, “even” modifies an implied Adjective.

In early English “one” (ân) was used in many places where we should use “only,” or “alone.” (For the use of “one” as an Adjective to signify “only,” cf. the Latin “Ego unus supersum.”) Thus, instead of “not (this) only that,” they wrote:—

In the earliest times “only” (ônlich) appears to have been used as an Adjective for “lonely,” “solitary,” and to have had a Superlative form (ônlukest). In this sense we still speak of “an only child.” Rut the Adverbial termination -ly (cf. the -y in “many”) (Par. 218) has encouraged the Adverbial, and discouraged the Adjectival, usage. Our modern Adverbial “only” is therefore a compromise between an Adjective and an Adverb. It is not exactly an Adjective in the sense of “an only tyrant”; nor yet is the “only” an ordinary Adverb modifying “would act.” It is a confusion between “A tyrant is the only or one person that would act thus,” and “A tyrant by himself (one-ly) would act thus.”

“Only” should be parsed as “Adjectival Adverb irregularly modifying ‘tyrant.’ ”

46 II. Inflections. Adverbs have their Degrees of Comparison expressed (rarely) by Inflections, e.g. “soon,” “soon-er,” “soon-est”; more commonly by the addition of “more,” “most,” e.g. “happily,” “more happily,” “most happily.”

47 In parsing an Adverb, therefore, you may state—

I. With what Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Noun it is connected.

Always ask yourself before parsing an Adverb, “What does this Adverb tell me?” The answer will contain the Verb, Adjective, or Noun with which the Adverb is used.

II. Whether it is in the Positive, Comparative, or Superlative degree.

48 Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Conjunctions:—

Here “then” must be parsed as a Conjunction, or as an Adverb used Conjunctively.^[1]

49 The Adverbs “where,” “when,” “whence,” &c., are used (1) Interrogatively, (2) Conjunctively, (3) Relatively.^[1]

Parse the Adverbs in Exercise I., thus:^[1]—

The rest of this, and other Exercises, may be similarly parsed by the pupil.

50

The Preposition has no Inflections; and, in order to parse it, there is no need to state anything but the Noun or Pronoun that is the Object of the Preposition.

Cautions:

1. Some Prepositions are used as Adverbs, e.g.—

2. Some Prepositions or Prepositional Adverbs are parts of Compound Verbs, e.g.—

51

3. When a Preposition has a Relative Pronoun for its Object, it often follows the Pronoun, e.g.—

In such cases the Relative Pronoun is often omitted—

Parse the Prepositions in Exercise I., thus:^[1]—

The other Prepositions in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed.

52

The Conjunction has no Inflections, and therefore, in order to parse it, nothing is needed except to state what it does, i.e. what are the two sentences joined together by it. (See pages 104 and 105 of “How to Tell,” &c.)

53 Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Conjunctions:—

In “as far as,” “as soon as,” &c., the first “as” is an Adverb modifying “far,” “soon;” the second “as” is a Conjunction. See How to Tell, &c., p. 99. These words are, however, sometimes parsed as Compound Conjunctions.

Parse the Conjunctions in Exercise I., thus:^[1]—

The other Conjunctions in this, and in other Exercises may be similarly parsed.

54

A Verbal Noun is a Noun formed from a Verb by adding -ing to it, e.g. “I like walk-ing.”^[1]

A Verbal Noun resembles other Nouns in being the Subject of some Verb, or Object of some Verb or Preposition; but it differs from other Nouns in often taking an Object of its own, e.g.—

Here “eating” is the Object of “I like,” but also has for its Object “beef.”

Hence in a Verbal Noun you may state—

1. Whether it is used as Subject or Object.^[2]

2. (a) Of what Verb it is Subject, or (b) of what Verb or Preposition it is Object.

3. What is its Object, if it has one.

Parse the Verbal Nouns in the following Exercise:—

On reaching the shore, Mr. Barlow pointed to a speck far off on the horizon, and asked Tommy what it was. After observing it attentively, Tommy replied that it must* be a very small boat. “What can the boatmen he doing so far out at sea?” asked Mr. Barlow. “They must be engaged in catching fish,” said Tommy. “Look again,” said Mr. Barlow a few minutes* afterwards; “and, before replying, note whether the speck has changed.” “Yes, indeed!” cried Tommy, “instead of appearing a boat,* it now seems to be a small vessel,* sailing this way.” A half* an hour* afterwards, Mr. Barlow bade Tommy look* once more. “Why,” said Tommy, “the vessel, by coming nearer, seems to have changed into a ship, and, on looking more closely, I see that it has three masts.” “Then,” replied Mr. Barlow, smiling, “I trust you will now believe, without being very much surprised, that the sun is really larger than the earth, and only appears to be smaller, because of its being-so-far-off. And when you hear people saying that ‘seeing is believing,’ remember for the future, that, though you may see rightly, your reasoning may be wrong. You said you saw nothing but a speck at first, and there you were right; but you were wrong in inferring that the speck was a boat.”

Parse the italicized Verbal Nouns in—

The Sun and the Wind were one day disputing which was the stronger. On seeing a traveller approaching, “Cease your bawling,” said the Sun to the Wind, “and let us decide the question by doing and not by talking. Whoever can succeed in taking away that traveller’s cloak shall be confessed to be the conqueror: what do you say to deciding thus?” “I agree,” cried the Wind; “but would you mind my trying first?” “Not a bit,” said the other; and straightway the Wind set to work. First he tried blowing quietly, then more furiously; and at last he blew so loud that you could not have heard yourself speak for his howling; but all his blustering was in vain. So far from giving up his cloak, the traveller only drew it closer round him. Now it was the Sun’s turn to try. He began by driving away the clouds that the Wind had gathered; then he warmed the air with his bright face till the traveller was forced to loosen his cloak because of the heat. On seeing this, the Sun redoubled his efforts, till at last, fainting with the heat, the weary traveller flung himself on a bank to rest, after stripping himself of cloak and coat as well.

55

When you hear a person say “I struck ——,” you are led to ask “struck whom?” for the action passes across, as it were, from the Verb to the Object of the Verb. In “I walk,” the action is confined to the walker, and you are not led to ask “walk whom or what?”

Hence “strike” is called a Transitive Verb (trans, across; itive, passing): “walk” is called an Intransitive Verb.

The following Definitions are usually given:—

I. Transitive Verbs are those that denote an action not confined to the agent, but affecting something else.

II. Intransitive Verbs are those that denote (1) “being” or (2) “becoming,” or (3) some action confined to the agent, and not affecting anything else.

56 Most Transitive Verbs can take a Noun-Object or Pronoun-Object after them, e.g. “I love, hate, strike Thomas, them:” and, as a rough test, it may be said that if a Verb cannot take “them” after it, it is not a Transitive Verb.

57 But a few Transitive Verbs take a Noun-Phrase or a Noun-Clause as Object, and rarely or never a Noun or Pronoun, e.g. “I think, hope, that he will come.” Here “that he will come” is the Object of the Transitive Verbs think or hope.

These Verbs are very seldom followed by a Noun-Object, e.g.—

58 Caution. Some Verbs seem to be (but are not) used Transitively. The apparent Object is really a kind of Adverb; it might be made the Object of an inserted Preposition, but it is not the Object of the Verb. See Par. 131.

The Verbs is, seem, appear, remain, become, &c., are Intransitive Verbs (see Par. 147).

59

When the Object of a Transitive Verb, e.g. “John wounds Thomas,” is made the Subject, e.g. “Thomas is wounded by John,” then the Verb in the second sentence tells us what is done to Thomas, or what Thomas suffers. Hence the form of the Verb, is wounded, is called the Passive (i.e. “suffering”).

60 The Passive Voice is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject.

Hence only Transitive Verbs can have Passive Voices, for only Transitive Verbs have Objects.

The ordinary form of the Verb is often called the Active (i.e. “doing”) Voice, because it generally tells us what the person or thing denoted by the Subject does, e.g. “John wounds.”

The following definition seems truer:—

61 The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object.

Intransitive Verbs are always in the Active Voice.

62

63

1. Most Verbs, Transitive or Intransitive, can have Verb-Adjectives formed from them by adding -ing (rejecting final -e), e.g. “dancing,” “wandering.”^[1]

64 These words are used as—

(1.) Adjectives:

(2.) Verbs with Conjunctions or with Relative Pronouns:

(3.) Parts of a Stating Verb:

Consequently, as these words participate in the nature of Adjectives and also in the nature of Verbs, they are called Participles.

When these words are used as Adjectives, they should be parsed as “Participles used as Adjectives.”

65 2. A second Participle is formed from Transitive Verbs by adding -ed to the Verb, e.g. wound, wounded. See Par. 558.

This kind of Participle is often used with a Noun, to denote that the person or thing represented by the Noun suffers the action denoted by the Verb; e.g. in “a wounded man,” “wounded” denotes that a “man” has suffered wounding. Hence the Participle in -ed is called the Passive Participle.

The Participle in -ing is called the Active Participle.

66

A Participle can at once be distinguished (1) from an Adjective, (2) from part of a Stating Verb by the fact that it can be, in part, replaced by a Conjunctive word, i.e. by a Conjunctive or Relative Pronoun.

You must judge from the sense of the passage what Conjunction is (partly) to replace any Participle. For example, “walking” might be replaced by—

67 There is probably some confusion between (1) “I saw him a-walking,” i.e. “in, or, in the act of, walking (Noun)”; (2) “I saw him walking (Participle)”; (3) “I saw him walk (Infinitive),” which Infinitive was once “walk-en,” easily confused with the Verbal Noun and with the Active Participle.

Change the italicized Participles into Verbs and Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns:—

A little boy running carelessly along the street, knocked against an old woman carrying a basket of eggs on her head. Down fell the basket smashing all the eggs. The thoughtless boy at first ran on; but, looking round and seeing the people staring and the old woman beginning to cry, he turned back, saying, “I am very sorry; I would not have knocked against you, if I had seen you.” “Yes, master,” replied the old woman, looking sadly at the fragments of her broken eggs lying about the dirty pavement, “but your sorrow will not mend my eggs, nor feed my grandchildren waiting for bread at home.”

Passive, as well as Active, Participles can be changed into Verbs with Conjunctions or with Relative Pronouns.

Change the Participles in the following Exercise into Verbs and Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns:—

A rich gouty man troubled with disease in his feet, went to a physician distinguished for his skill, promising to do exactly what the physician ordered, if only he would cure him. Seeing his patient deprived of the use of his feet and too lazy to use them, the physician took him up into a room containing no chair, couch, or seat of any kind, and having a floor lined with iron. There he left him and went out, locking the door behind him. Presently the rich man found his feet growing unpleasantly hot. Irritated at this he called out, but no one answered. Hobbling to the door on his crutches, he found it locked. By this time his feet, heated by the hot iron floor, pained him so much that he began to raise them, lifting first one, then the other, at first slowly, then more and more quickly. In this way, forced to use his legs, he found the use of them grow more and more easy, and was cured against his will.

68

You must be particularly careful after the Verbs of the senses, such as “see,” “hear,” and “find,” (where “find” means “understand.”) Thus, in “I saw my friend shot down,” the meaning is “I saw my friend being, i.e. when he was in the act of being, shot down;” but in “I saw his body, thrown on one side and frightfully mangled,” the meaning might be, either “when it was being thrown,” or “after it had been thrown:” and you cannot tell which is meant without carefully looking at the whole of the passage.

In other words, a Passive Participle, e.g. “shot,” may stand for “being shot,” or, “having been shot.”^[1]

69

A Participle, like an Adjective, (1) must always be connected with some Noun or Pronoun; (2) as being part of a Verb, it must be either Active or Passive; (3) if Active, it may have an Object. In parsing a Participle, therefore, you can state—

In order to answer (1), first replace the Participle by a Conjunction (or Rel. Pronoun) and Verb; then ask the question who? or what? before the Verb that replaces the Participle.

The answer given by the sentence to this question is the Noun or Pronoun to which the Participle is joined.

For example, in the last Exercise, “troubled” is replaced by “that was troubled.” “Who was troubled?” The answer given by the story is “a rich gouty man;” then “man” is the Noun to which “troubled” is joined. “Seeing” is replaced by “since he saw.” “Who saw?” Answer, “The physician;” then “physician” is the Noun to which “seeing” is joined.

Parse fully Participles not marked * in previous Exercises.

70

When we speak about an action or state, we may speak of it in several different ways or Modes.

I. We may point out the action definitely, as present, past, or future, e.g. “he comes, came, will come.” This is called the Pointing or Indicative Mode or Mood. (Indica-, point out.)

II. We may speak of an action without defining the doer, e.g. “to come is easy.” This is called the Infinitive Mode or Mood (in, not; finit-, marked out, defined).

III. We may command an action. This is called the Commanding or Imperative Mode or Mood (impera-, command).

IV. We may speak of an action not as past, present, or future, but as (1) expressing a condition, e.g. “if he should come;” or (2) subject to a condition, e.g. “I should see him;” or (3) (a) purpose, e.g. “Come here that I may see you;” or (b) purpose approximating to a wish, e.g. “I pray that his life may be spared.”

In all these cases, except (2), the Verb is preceded by a Conjunction—if, that, &c.; and this Mood might therefore be called the Conjunctive Mood. But it is generally called the Subjunctive Mood.^[1]

71

For the present, in speaking of the Times or Tenses of a Verb, we shall confine ourselves to those of the Indicative Mood.

A Verb may tell you—

1. What any person or thing does at the present time:—

2. What he did in past time:—

3. What he will do in future time:—

A Verb, then, has three times of which it can speak—Past, Present, and Future.

Now the French for “time” is temps; and from this French word, slightly altered, we have made the word Tense.

A Verb has three Tenses—Past, Present, and Future.

72

Suppose you are speaking of a fisherman whom you saw some time ago, i.e. in past time, catching fish.

1. You may say simply—

Here you do not define the action further than by saying it is past. This Tense may therefore be called the “not-defined Past,” or Past Indefinite.

2. You may say—

—that is, the action was in an incomplete state, still going on, or continuing. This Tense may therefore be called the Past Incomplete, or Past Continuous.

3. You may say—

—that is, the action was in a complete state. This Tense may therefore be called the Past Complete.

The same three divisions may be found in the Future and Present:—

1. Future Indefinite:

2. Future Incomplete:

3. Future Complete:

1. Present Indefinite:

2. Present Incomplete:

3. Present Complete:

73 In old English, it was more easy to see that “I have caught” was a present tense; for they used to arrange it thus, “I have the salmon caught,” clearly showing that the Time of the Verb was Present (as is shown by “I have” i.e. “I possess”) and that “caught” was only a Participle or Adjective telling you what had happened to the salmon. But it is not so easy to see this in Intransitive and Passive Verbs, e.g. “I have run.”

Each Tense has three States, the Indefinite, the Complete, and the Incomplete.

The Passive Tenses are formed by placing the Passive Participle after the different Tenses of the Verb “to be.”

74 Some of the Passive Tenses are rarely or never used, owing to their lengthiness; and there is one “state” that is found in the Present, Past, and Future of the Active, but not of the Passive.

This “state” denotes an action completed, after being continuous. It may therefore be called the Complete Post Continuous.

Hence all the Tenses may be arranged as follows:—

75 Scheme of Tenses.^[1]

76

The Tenses and Participles of Irregular Verbs will be best learned by practice. But the pupil may be cautioned against confusing:—

I. “Lay,” “lie,” “lie.”

II. The Past Indefinite, and Passive Participle of “ring,” “sing,” &c.; often confused by Milton and Pope, but to be kept distinct in Modern English:—

See Dr. Morris’s Historical Outlines, &c. In E.E., sang was used in the Singular, sung in the Plural, of the Past Tense. “Lay” is the Causative form of “lie,” as “raise” of “rise,” “set” of “sit,” “fell” of “fall,” “drench” of “drink.”

77

In questions and denials we prefer a different form of the Indefinite Present and Past. Instead of “I came not;” “Why speak you?” we say “I did not come;” “Why do you speak?” The advantage of this form of the Verb is, that it enables us to put the Verb at the end, while the did or do prepares the way for it. You may call this the Negative or Interrogative form of the Verb.

More rarely this form is used affirmatively, to emphasize the truth of a statement:—

78

If you alter the Subject of a Verb, you often have to alter the Verb so as to agree with the Subject.

1. If you alter “I” into “he,” you must alter “catch” into “catches,” so as to agree with “he.”

2. Again, if you alter “he” into “they” you must alter “catches” to “catch,” so as to agree with the alteration of the Subject from Singular to Plural.

This is expressed by saying that—

A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number.

79 As an explanation of our distinction between First, Second, and Third Persons, it may be remembered that the Romans, whose grammar we have copied, thought it natural for a person speaking to think first of himself (I), secondly of the person to whom he was speaking (you), and thirdly of any one else about whom he was speaking (him or her).

The following Scheme shews how a Verb agrees with its Subject:—

The Verb “to be” is the only Verb in English that has a separate form of the Verb when the Subject is in the Plural. In other Verbs the Plural form is the same as that of the First Person Singular, e.g. “I have,” “they have.”

80

If asked to parse a Verb in the Indicative Mood fully, e.g. “has caught,” in “He has caught a fish,” you may state—

1. The kind or nature of the Verb: Transitive.

2. The Voice: Active.

3. The Mood: Indicative.

4. The Tense: Complete Present.

5. The Person: in the Third Person.

6. The Number: Singular.

7. It agrees with its Subject “he.”

8. It has for its Object “a fish.”

Caution.—Note that the Present Indicative is often used where, logically, the Future should be used:—

After “when,” “till,” &c., Shakespeare often uses the Future or Subjunctive, e.g. “When he shall be able.” The modern Present may in these cases be parsed as “used for Future.” For the Present after “if,” see Par. 168.

81

It is usual, in parsing a Verb, and stating the Subject and Object, not to state the whole of the Subject or Object, but only the Noun or Pronoun, omitting any Adjectives or Adjective Phrases connected with the Noun. For example, in the sixth Verb parsed in the Exercise below, the Subject of “had seen” is “the keen eyes of the lion;” but you need only take the Noun part of the Subject, and may answer simply “eyes.”

In the same way, when stating the Object of “didst thou leave,” you need not write down “thy cruel master,” but only the Noun part, “master.”

82 Exercise XVII.^[1]

Caxton brought the printing press to England from Bruges in 1476. In addition to the difficulties that attended the new art of printing, the language had come into such a state that an author needed much judgment to select his words and frame his style. A conflict was raging between the new-fangled French affectation and English pedantry, and Caxton was sorely distracted between the “honest and great clerks,” who advocated the former, and the “gentlemen,” who stood up for “old and homely terms.” “Our language,” says the printer, “varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born;” and he adds that “the English that is spoken in one shire varieth from the English spoken in another.” He goes on to tell a tale how certain merchants on the Thames sailing to Zealand and compelled by contrary winds to remain on the Foreland, went into a farmhouse and asked for “eggs.” The good-wife answered that she spoke no French. “Why talkest thou of French?” replied the merchant, angry at being taken for a Frenchman, “I speak no French, nor understand it, I ask for eggs.” But the farmer’s wife, in spite of all his anger, could none the better understand him, till one of his companions said he wanted “eyren,” and the eggs came fast enough.

“Lo what shall a man in these days now write?” adds the puzzled printer. “Shall he write ‘eggs’ or ‘eyren?’ Certainly, it* is hard to please every man, by cause of diversity and change of language.”

State the Noun-Subjects, Noun-Objects, Kinds, Voices, and Tenses of the italicized Verbs:—

Many centuries ago, a slave, who had made his escape from a cruel master, fled to a forest where night surprised him, so that he was forced to take refuge in a cave. Scarcely had he closed his eyes in the attempt to sleep, when he heard the roar of a lion beside him. He started up, but it was too late; the keen eyes of the lion had seen him, and were slowly coming nearer. Androcles—who had no arms of any kind—now gave himself up for lost. “What shall I do?” said he: “I have no spear or sword—no, not so much as a stick to defend myself with.” And he cried aloud in agony, “O foolish Androcles, why didst thou leave thy cruel master, who at least would have spared thy life because thou wast useful to him, whereas now thou wilt be the meal of this hungry lion?” What was his surprise, however, to find that the lion, instead of springing on him, was walking quietly up to him, limping as though he were in pain. Gaining courage at this, Androcles made no attempt to run away. Presently the lion held out his paw, and on examining it Androcles found that it was inflamed^[1] and swelled. Looking more closely, he perceives that a thorn has pierced the ball of the foot, and that it is from this that the lion is suffering.

83

84

Where a word, e.g. he, has one form when used as a Subject, he, and another when used as an Object, him—the Verb is sometimes said to govern the Object, because the Verb, as it were, controls and alters the form of the Object. Only in cases where the Objective differs from the Subjective form, can a Verb be said, with truth, to govern the Object.

85 Parse, as above:—

Gathering fresh courage from the behaviour of the lion, Androcles at last ventures to lay his hand on the extended paw; he touches and handles the swelling, and, in spite of the growing darkness, succeeds in drawing out a large thorny splinter, which had run deep into the foot. As soon as the thorn was extracted, the lion showed his joy by evident signs, and at first lay down by the side of his benefactor, as though to protect him; but presently he departed. Next morning, however, before the sun had risen, back comes the lion to the cave with a deer in his jaws, which he sets down at the feet of Androcles; and, for several days, while Androcles was hiding in the cave, he was protected from all danger and^[1] supplied with ample food by the grateful lion. But one day, just when the slave was congratulating himself that he had escaped his pursuers for ever, a party of soldiers, passing through the forest, catch^[2] sight of him resting in the cave in the absence of the lion. At once they arrest him, and carry him back to the city whence he had escaped.^[3]

86

Some Nouns, though Singular, are sometimes treated as Plural, because they are Plural in meaning, e.g. “party” in “A party of friends are coming to dine with me to-day.” Here, although “is coming” would not be absolutely wrong, yet “are coming” sounds more natural, because “party” means a number of persons coming from distinct quarters, and regarded as distinct. See Pars. 334—9.

87

Note that in the Indefinite Future, shall is used in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third Persons:—

The reason is this: shall, like “must,” implies compulsion. Now we do not mind using a word implying compulsion about ourselves; but it seems rather rude to use it about others. For this reason we dislike saying, except in anger, “you shall,” “he shall,” and prefer to say, “you will,” “he will.” “You will” once meant “you wish or are willing to;” but now it generally means no more than “you are going (to).”

When we are bestowing a favour that does not depend on the recipient but on our own will, we may use “shall” with the Second Person:—

Here the context absolutely destroys the notion of compulsion, and therefore “shall” may be used without rudeness.

For a similar reason, there is no rudeness in—

You cannot command a man to do anything unless you speak to him; consequently the commanding or Imperative Mood is, strictly speaking, always in the Second Person, Singular or Plural, e.g. “come.”

88 Sometimes we, as it were, exhort or command ourselves, e.g. “let me see,” “let us run.” But this is the same as “suffer me to see,” “suffer us to run.” Here, therefore, “suffer” and “let” are Imperatives, addressed to some imaginary person; but “see” and “run” are not Imperatives, but Infinitives, the “to” being left out. (See Par. 94).

89 Again, sometimes, when we are speaking of a Third Person, we seem to command him, e.g. “let him beware;” but this is explained in the same way, and is put for “let him (to) beware.”

The Imperative is almost always in the Active.

The Passive, when used, is formed (like every other Mood and Tense of the Passive) from the Passive Participle preceded by “be”:—

90 In the Bible, the Subject of the Imperative is often expressed, e.g., “come ye”: but it is generally omitted in modern English.

As a command applies mostly to the present time, there are no Tenses in this Mood. A command relating to the future is sometimes expressed by the Future Indicative; either the compulsory form, “You shall bring the book to-morrow,” or the courteous form, “You will have dinner ready by seven.” We also say “Have done,” Pres. Compl.

91

An Imperative has no Inflections, and therefore cannot with truth agree with its Subject. It is therefore wrong to use agree about the Imperative. The Imperative has a Subject.

In parsing an Imperative, use the form given in Par. 80, remembering that, though the Subject of an Imperative is seldom expressed, yet it is always implied.

92

The Tenses of the Infinitive Mood of a Verb, e.g. “send,” are as follows:—

There is no Past Tense. The Future is expressed by different phrases, such as “to be on the point of sending,” “to be about to be sending,” “to be going to send,” &c.

The “to” is inclosed in brackets, because it is sometimes omitted, e.g. “I saw him (to) fall,” where “fall” is Infinitive. See next Paragraph.

93

We can say indifferently—

Why is “to” inserted in the second, and omitted in the first, example?

Again, compare together—

To is also omitted after the Verbs see, hear, need, feel, e.g. “I saw him die,” “I heard her sing.” What is the reason for the omission of to after all these Verbs?

94 The reason is that our ancestors used not to put to before the Infinitive. Instead of “to walk” they used to say “walk-en.” “To” was only used to denote purpose, with a special form of the Verb, “to walk-ene,” i.e. “in order to walk.” In time, the inflections -en and -ene became disused. So, to denote the Infinitive, they used “to” in all cases, not only in its proper sense of purpose, but also as the mere sign of the Infinitive, even where the Infinitive was nothing but a Noun. Thus, instead of saying “I like walk-en,” they began to say “I like to walk.”

95 But after some Verbs, such as let, may, can, &c., it was not found necessary to use to. These Verbs, because they are so often companions or allies to other Verbs, are called “allied” or Auxiliary Verbs. When these Verbs therefore were used, everybody knew that an Infinitive was pretty certain to follow, even though to was not put in: “let us (to) pray.”

96 For a similar reason, to was not inserted after see, hear, &c., because they were Verbs of such common use that everybody understood that a Verb could be in the Infinitive after them, without the insertion of to.^[1]

But remember, the Verbs after the Auxiliary Verbs, e.g. “let us pray,” are Infinitives, just as much as after other Verbs where to is inserted, e.g. “permit us to pray.”

“To” is omitted in the Infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs “may,” “can,” “will”^[2] “let,” “must,” &c., and also after “see,” “hear,” “feel,” &c.

97

The Infinitive is often used to complete, i.e. to be the Complement of, a preceding Noun or Pronoun. For example, in—

Here (1) “a rascal” is not the Object of “like,” for you do not like “a rascal” but “a rascal to be punished.” Consequently, “rascal” is only the Partial Object, and it has for its Complement the Infinitive “to be punished.”

In the same way (2) (though the Subjective Construction is less common than Objective), the “prisoner” was not “ordered” at all; what was ordered was the execution of the prisoner, or, in the words of the sentence, “the prisoner to be executed.” Consequently, “prisoner” is only the Partial Subject, and it has for its Complement the Infinitive “to be executed.”

98 The Infinitive is used—

I. (a) As a Noun:

I. (b) As part of a Noun-Phrase used Objectively:—

I. (c) Less frequently, as part of a Noun-Phrase used Subjectively:—

But these may also sometimes be parsed as Adverbial Infinitives. See Par. 105.

99 II. As an Adverb, or part of an Adverb, modifying a Verb or Adjective:—

100 III. As an Adjective-Phrase:—

101

Hence, in parsing an Infinitive, you may first state—

1. Kind of Verb. Transitive, or Intransitive.

2. Voice. Active or Passive.

3. Mood. Infinitive.

4. “State,” or Division of Tense, i.e. whether Indefinite, Complete, or Incomplete.

5. Object, if it has any.

To these statements you may add whether it is used as a—

I. Noun: and, if so, (a) of what Verb it is the Subject or Object, Complementary or otherwise; and (b) to what Noun or Pronoun it is Complementary.

II. An Adverb: and, if so, by what Preposition and Verbal Noun it may be replaced.^[1]

III. Adjective: and, if so, with what Noun it is connected.

102 Parse the Infinitives in the following Exercise^[1]:—

Having been brought before the judge, Androcles was at once condemned, and ordered to be exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatre, to strike terror into all other slaves that might wish to run away from their masters. Accordingly, on the appointed day, the wretched slave was made to stand in the presence of thousands of spectators, opposite the cage of a lion, which had not been suffered to eat anything for several days, to increase its natural savageness. The furious roaring of the famished lion struck terror into every heart, and made the poor slave prepare for the worst. Suddenly, the signal is given, and from the open cage forth bounds the lion. But, what was the astonishment of the spectators, to see the savage beast, on reaching its victim, at once change its nature. Instead of devouring Androcles, it began to fawn on and caress him. The spectators, indignant at the cowardice of the beast—for so they called it—bade the officers let loose a second lion to destroy the first. It was done, and forthwith a monster larger and more furious than the first, rushed with open jaws at the trembling slave. But the first lion, at once springing on the assailant, forced it to turn from Androcles, and after a terrible contest, left it disabled on the sand. The admiring spectators now shouted^[2] applause,^[2] declaring that the slave must be asked to explain the lion’s extraordinary conduct. On hearing the story of his adventures, they begged the Governor to pardon Androcles, and not only to give him his freedom, but also to bestow on him his faithful lion. Their importunity was not to be resisted, and both requests were granted.

103

104 Parse the Infinitives in the following Exercise:—

Long ago, when people used^[1] to worship many gods, a carter was striving^[2] to make his way with a heavily-laden waggon through a miry lane. The horses did their best, but the waggoner, who did not wish to take more trouble than he could^[3] help,^[3] was content to^[4] sit upon the waggon and let^[3] the horses carry him, while he cracked his whip and sang songs. Presently the road began^[1] to rise, but still the waggoner kept his seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent seemed to have dashed across the road, wearing a deep pit with its waters. The horses put forth all their strength to pull the waggon across, but in vain; all their efforts could^[3] not even move the wheels, which began^[4] to sink deeper and deeper into the pit. Now, when it was too late^[4] to do anything, the good-for-nothing carter got down from his waggon; but all that he did was to curse and swear at the horses. Finding that cursing did not move the waggon, he at last thought he would try what praying could^[5] do. So, falling on his knees, he besought Hercules, the god of hard work, to come and help him in his troubles. In an instant Hercules was on the spot; but, instead of helping him, “You lazy fellow!” said he, “how dare^[5] you send for me, till you have tried^[2] to do without me? Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are willing to help^[6] themselves.”

105 Caution. After Verbs of asking, commanding, advising, compelling, it is not always easy to determine whether the Infinitive is Adverbial or Complementary. For example, in—

—the meaning is the same as—

Here there is a notion of purpose: and hence “to help” in (1) may be parsed as an Adverbial Infinitive meaning “for the purpose of helping.”

But “him to help” might also be treated as meaning “his helping,” and regarded as the Object of “they besought.”

Either parsing may therefore be allowed, Adverbial or Complementary.

When the pupil has once grasped the notion that could, would, &c., are followed by Infinitives, it will be no longer necessary to separate the Auxiliary from the Infinitive. The whole may be parsed together as a Compound Verb. For example, in the last exercise, “could do,” may be treated as a Compound Verb.

106

Note that the Complementary Object Infinitive cannot always be converted into a Complementary Subject Infinitive. You can say—

But not—

The reason is this, that in (2) the Noun “rascal” is separated and disconnected in meaning from the Infinitive “to be punished;” and therefore “rascal” would be in danger of being regarded as the complete Subject of “is liked.”

107 Consequently the Complementary Subject Infinitive is seldom used except where the Noun-Subject and the Verb are so related that the former might be made the Complete Subject of the latter, without making utter nonsense. For example, “he” might be made the Complete Subject of “is known,” “was heard,” “was asked”; although in a very different sense from that of the following examples, in which “he” is Partial Subject:—

In all these cases it is better to parse the Infinitive as Complementary; but it may be parsed, though not so well, Adverbially, e.g. “he is known as regards being honest,” “he was heard in the act of saying,” &c.

108

I. As an Adjective can be modified by an Adverb, so can it by an Adverbial Infinitive:—

109

An Adjectival Phrase may be made up by the Preposition to and the Infinitive, as easily as by a Preposition and Noun. There is no difference, in principle, between “a monkey with along tail;” “apples for eating;” “paper for writing;” “water for drinking,” and—

The Adjectival force of the Infinitive may be seen by the ease with which, in many cases, “to” may be replaced by -ing or -able, so as to convert the Adjective-Phrase into an Adjective: “writing-paper,” “playing-time,” “deplorable,” “undeniable,” &c.

110

The Adverbial Infinitive of Purpose is often briefly used in a Parenthesis:—

This seems to be a short way of saying “(In order) to tell the truth (I must say that), I completely lost my way.”

This seems to be a condensation of “(In order for you) to be sure, (I say distinctly) I will come.”

111

The Infinitive is sometimes used absolutely in exclamations:—

In (1) “to think” appears to be the Subject of some Verb understood, e.g. “astonishes me;” in (2) “to dream” is probably an Adverbial Infinitive modifying “simpleton” repeated. “Simpleton to dream” is the same as “foolish to dream,” or “for dreaming.”

112

Parse the italicized words in the following Exercise:—

A lean hungry wolf one day met a mastiff, who had lost himself in the forest, and asked the wolf to shew him the way home.* For a moment the wolf thought of springing at the dog’s throat; he was so plump and sleek and seemed so good to eat. But the mastiff was too strong to be overpowered; so the wolf replied, “Show you the way, Sir? To be sure I will”: and away they trotted together.

Presently the mastiff looked askance at the wolf. “You seem to me,” said he, “to be in good condition for the chase, but you are not shapely to look at: one can count your ribs.” “I am content to be poor,” replied the wolf: “here in these woods there is not much to eat. But what makes you so fat^[1] and sleek?^[1] I would give anything to be in such condition.” “Then I advise you to come with me,” replied the mastiff, “and you will be sure to get what you want. You will have nothing to do, but to bark at beggars and vagrants, and then you may eat as much as you like of good beef and mutton. Will you come?” At the mention of mutton, the wolf could not contain himself; his mouth watered and he began to weep for joy. “To think of your doubting whether I would come,” he cried: “most gladly will I accept your offer: my life is no longer to be endured. Indeed, to tell you the truth, I have not tasted food for the last four days.” So on they went at a quickened pace.

113

As they walked and talked, the wolf could not forbear every now and then turning to admire his companion. While* doing* so, he noticed a mark round the dog’s neck where the hair appeared to be worn away. “What’s that?” asked the wolf. “Nothing.” “Nothing?” “Nothing to speak of,” answered the mastiff in a rather confused way. “But what is it?” asked the wolf again: for he began to be suspicious. “Well then, if you are determined to know—it is only the mark of the collar round my neck. Sometimes I am ordered to be tied up to prevent my losing my way, as I have done to-day. It is of no consequence.” “It is of so much consequence,” interrupted the wolf, “that I must wish you* good-bye,* and bid you go home by yourself. To lose one’s freedom is a loss not to be endured. I prefer to starve free^[1] rather than to be a plump slave.”

114

Participles, like Adjectives, have no Tenses of their own, but borrow the time they express from some other Verb in the sentence. Thus “walking” or “supported” may be Past, Present, or Future:—

1. Past:—

2. Present:—

3. Future:—

115 The Participial forms might be arranged as follows, according to their forms:—

But the Incomplete form may sometimes denote an action in the Indefinite Past, as in the first example of Paragraph 114.

Note that the Complete as well as the Incomplete form of the Participle can be used either for Present, Past, or Future. For example, “Having walked on, I came to Windsor” means not “when I have walked on,” but “when I had walked on,” so that the Participle is here put for the Complete Past.

A future action is expressed in a Participle by a Phrase with “being,” e.g. “being on the point of death,” “being about to die” (where “to die” must be regarded as the Object of “about”).

116 The confusion in the uses of the Participle is, perhaps, in part explained by its having been confused with the abbreviated Adverbial use of the Verbal. For example, “in,” or, “on walking” could naturally mean either “engaged in walking,” or “upon,” i.e. “after walking.” When this Adverbial Phrase was contracted to “a-walking,” or simply “walking,” it was easily confused with the Participle.

Originally the Participle ended in -nd, and the Verbal in -ng; but very early, the Particle assumed -ng. See Par. 554—8.

117 Find the Object of the Verb in the first of the following sentences:—

Ask the question in the usual way, “Brought whom or what?” Answer, “Brought a book;” therefore “book” is the Object of “brought.”

If any one were to say, “No, the sentence gives the answer ‘brought Thomas,’ ” you would reply, “John did not bring Thomas, he brought the book for or to Thomas; and ‘brought Thomas’ is only a short way of saying ‘brought for or to Thomas.’ ”

118 Nevertheless, as “Thomas” does (in a certain sense) answer to the question “whom?” after the Verb, it is called an Object. But “book” is called the Direct Object, as it is the first and direct object of the action; and Thomas is called the Indirect Object, as being the second object indirectly affected by the action.

The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase that answers to the question “For, or, to whom?” “For, or, to what?” when asked after the Verb and its Direct Object.

119 There are a few exceptions to this rule. In “he played me a trick,” “on,” not “for,” would be supplied before “me.” Also, after “ask,” “of” or “from” has to be supplied: “he asked (of) his sister a question.”^[1]

120 N.B. The Indirect Object can easily be detected as follows: it always comes before the Direct Object, and cannot be placed after the Direct Object without the insertion of a Preposition, in which case it ceases to be the Indirect Object of the Verb, and becomes the Object of the Preposition:—

121 Which are the Direct and which the Indirect Objects of the italicized Verbs?—

1. John fetched me a book. 2. He forgave me my fault. 3. My mother taught me French. 4. The judge asked him a question. 5. He refused me this slight favour. 6. My cousin did me a good turn. 7. The thief gave me a sudden blow. 8. My uncle left me a small sum of money. 9. She will tell me what she wants. 10. You shall send me some more soldiers at once. 11. He lent me a thousand pounds. 12. I will shew your friend everything that is to be seen. 13. This man owed me money. 14. He played me a trick. 15. This conduct will lose you the esteem of your friends. 16. He promises us much, but does little. 17. He answered me nothing. 18. I envy you your good health. 19. A little forethought will save us a great deal of trouble. 20. His father allowed him two hundred pounds a year.

122

When an Active Verb, taking two Objects, is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object. This Object may be—

I. The former Indirect Object of the Active:—

II. The former Direct Object of the Active:—

123 If a distinction is needed between the two kinds of Objects used after a Passive Verb, the terms Direct and Indirect Object of the Active may be used. But unless such a distinction is asked, it will be enough to say that it is the Object retained after a Passive Verb, or, for shortness, the retained Object.

124 Caution. Carefully distinguish the Retained Object from the Supplement (Par. 148) of a Verb in itself incomplete. For example, “to make king,” is a Compound Verb, equivalent to “to king,” or “to be-king.” Consequently, “king” is not the Retained Object, but the Supplement of an incomplete Verb in:—

125

Some Verbs, though generally Intransitive, take occasionally after them an Object whose meaning is akin to the Verb. Such Objects are called Cognate (co-, together; nate, born: hence “born together,” “related,” “akin”).

This usage is more common in Poetry and in elevated language than in ordinary Prose:—

126

In the earliest English there was a special Inflection to denote the Indirect Object. Being mostly used after such Verbs as “give,” “lend,” “send,” “forgive,” “refuse,” &c.—all of which imply “giving” or “not giving”—this Use or Case of the Noun or Pronoun was called the Dative (i.e., giving) Case.

In the earliest English, this Inflection would make it perfectly clear which was the Direct and which the Indirect Object. Compare together (1) the modern English, and (2) the earliest English, in the following examples:—

In (2), but not in (1), we see distinctly by the Inflection -um (which is the sign of the Dative use), that “mynstrum” is the Indirect Object.

If the old Dative case had to be specified, wherever it is found in Modern English, we should have to call the Objects in the following examples, Datives:—

But in modern English the Object after “trust,” “befall,” &c. must now be called the Direct Object.

127 An Adverbial Phrase is sometimes contracted into a Noun with a Prepositional Prefix, e.g., “a-board,” “a-foot,” “a-field;” and sometimes still further contracted into a Noun without Prefix of any kind:

Home (E.E. ham) is repeatedly used as an Adverb in “Layamon,” and also as an Inflected Noun.

128 Again, in the earliest periods of the language, an Adverbial Phrase was sometimes represented by an Inflected Noun, the Inflection representing a modern Preposition (see last paragraph):

129 Hence, even where no Preposition was ever inserted, the Objective form is sometimes used in answer to the questions “How far?” “How much?” “When?” “Where?” e.g.—

The Objective form me in the first sentence shews that all these Nouns and Pronouns must be regarded as Objectively used.

130 These Adverbial Objects are sometimes, as it were, compromises between Adverbs and Direct Objects. For example, “is worth” implies the Transitive Verb “equals,” and may therefore, naturally be followed by a Direct Object. On the other hand, it is in form Intransitive, so as to require an Adverb rather than an Object.

131 In some of these cases a Preposition may be inserted before the Object, as—

But it is not to be supposed that a Preposition was thus inserted in early English.

132 Parse the italicized Nouns and Pronouns in the following Exercise:⁠—

The Romans had given Lars Porsena offence by banishing their king Tarquin the Proud. So Porsena sent them an ambassador bidding them take back their king or prepare for war. But the Romans knew well that they would never be forgiven their rebellion by king Tarquin; and, although pardon was offered them if they would submit, they knew they could not trust his promises. So they gave the ambassador an answer of defiance, and sent him away. Then king Porsena, after waiting some days to see whether they would submit, determined to teach the Romans a lesson and to humble their pride. So, two months after the banishment of Tarquin, the Tuscan king set out for Rome.

133

Great was the fear that the Tuscan army caused the Romans, when it suddenly appeared on the other side of the Tiber. The senate was just then taking counsel; but on hearing of the enemy’s approach, all rushed that instant toward the wall. Messenger after messenger had arrived bringing the consuls word that this town had been taken or that village burned; but still the Romans had not expected that the army could reach Rome that day. Forcing his way through crowds that pressed round asking him anxious questions about their friends and relations, the consul mounted the wall and at once cried out: “If yonder bridge is not broken down, the enemy will be upon us this moment.” Then out spoke Horatius and said: “I and two others will keep the bridge for you: hew it down at once.” So Horatius and two other brave Romans, took their stand on the bridge, to fight their battle against the whole Tuscan army, while the rest of the Romans, Senators and Commons together, worked hard at the bridge, loosening the props and tearing down the planks.

134 An Object may be parsed as follows:—

Answer the rest for yourself.

135

I. The Subject is sometimes used with the Participle (without any Verb of which it can be called the Subject) so as to make an Adverbial Phrase:—

Examples (1) and (2) shew us that in this construction the Noun is used Subjectively, and not Objectively; for the Subjective forms “I” and “he” are used, not “me” and “him.”

The Subject may be explained as Subject of the Verb implied in the Participle; e.g. in (1) “I resisting” is the same as “while, or, though, I resisted.”

The Subject in this construction being free from or loosed from its usual connection with the Verb, is sometimes called the Subject Absolute (ab, from; solut-, loosed).

136 II. Sometimes the Participle is omitted:—

In all these cases some participle, such as “being,” can be easily supplied.

137

Sometimes a Noun or Pronoun is used not as the ordinary Subject or Object of a Verb, but as a sort of repetition and explanation of the Subject or Object.

In such cases, “I mean,” or “that is to say,” or some similar expression, may be supplied between the two Nouns:—

Here “the boy,” being in close connection with “Thomas,” is said to be in Apposition (ad, near; position, position) to “Thomas.”

138 For “the boy,” write the Third Personal Pronoun. Then the sentence becomes—

In (2) “Thomas” is the Subject, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Subject-Inflection; in (3) “Thomas” is the Object, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Object-Inflection. Hence we get this Rule:—

Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects.

139 By “used Subjectively” or “Objectively” is meant that—if the word has Subject and Object Inflections—the Subjective Inflection or Objective Inflection must be used.

140 In most cases it may be shewn that words “used (1) Subjectively” and (2) “Objectively” respectively, answer the question (1) “who?” or “what?” before the Verb, or (2) “whom?” or “what?” after the Verb—so that they are logically entitled to be described as being themselves Subjects or Objects. Thus “he,” above, answers “who came?”

Nouns or Pronouns in Apposition may be therefore described as Appositional Subjects or Objects respectively.

141

The Indirect Object is not often emphatic enough to have another Indirect Object in Apposition to it. But such a construction may occur:

142 The Noun when used Possessively, being almost an Adjective, is rarely or never followed by a Noun in Apposition. It would scarcely be English to say:

Even were such an Appositional use allowable, the Possessive could not be tolerated in Apposition; the Objective would have to be employed, e.g. “artist” above, and would have to be regarded as the Object of an implied “of.”

In the following examples there is no Apposition; the Noun that was once Appositional has now become part of a Compound Noun:—

The word “house” must be supplied after each of the Possessive Nouns in the following Example:

143 Sometimes a Noun is “in Apposition” not to another preceding Noun, but to some Noun implied from the preceding words:—

In some cases the Noun implied from the preceding sentence would, if expressed, be Objective. For example, the sentences might have run—

But in other cases the implied Noun might be Subjective, e.g.:—

144 Parse the italicized words in—

By this time the Tuscan army had come up, their spears advanced, and trumpets sounding in triumph. When they saw the three brave Romans on the bridge offering them battle, at first the sight caused them laughter, and three of the bravest chiefs spurred forth at Porsena’s command to open him a path. But the next moment, their three bodies lay bleeding beneath the Roman spears. Then three more Tuscans rode forward; but, these too being slain by the three Romans, fear and wrath fell on the whole army. So now, with levelled spears and closed ranks, they advanced all together against the champions, a sight to make the bravest shrink back. But the three stood their ground: and now they had gained their countrymen time enough to loosen the props of the bridge, which began to shiver under the force of the stream. “Back, Horatius, back,” shouted the Consul; and back rushed his two friends, just in time, the bridge cracking beneath their feet, and thundering downward, as they touched the bank. But the brave Horatius, his wound retarding him (for he had been wounded in the last contest) could not run back in time, and so was left alone, the enemy pressing on him in front, and the river—which was fully fifty yards broad—surging and foaming behind. One moment he paused, and offered up a prayer; then leaped into the stream. Romans and Tuscans, all alike, eagerly watched the brave swimmer, swimming a strong stroke, wounded though he was: and Porsena cried aloud that he was worth twelve ordinary lives, and prayed that he might live and fight many another battle. One minute he seemed to be sinking, but the next he rose, and at last, weary and faint, he reached the shore. From that time all the Romans paid Horatius due respect, and bestowed gifts upon him, and set up his statue in the market-place, an honour rarely bestowed on any Roman citizen.

Parse the italicized words in—

145

A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts: it had lasted all day, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or beast but* had taken one side or other in the battle—all^[1] but the bat. She alone, the cowardly creature, would take no part with either side. In vain the eagle, the general of the birds, being hard pressed by his enemies the beasts, sent her his commands by the swallow to join the army of the birds. “How can you give me the name of bird?” she replied; “what bird has teeth as I have?” Soon afterwards the lion, the king of the beasts, finding the battle going against him, sent to say that he would forgive her her past cowardice if she came at once to join his army. “What right has he to ask me such a favour?” replied the bat. “How can he take me for a beast? Even a mole can see that I have wings. Who ever saw a beast with wings?”

146

Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly offered the eagle her services. But the eagle answered, “Just now you told us you were a beast. Go to your friends the beasts: they need your help more than we.” The bat retired in confusion; but an hour afterwards, fortune inclining toward the beasts, she humbly approached the lion, offering him her help. “You would not do us a kindness when we were in trouble,” roared the lion, “and now do you talk about giving us your help? Away with you! The battle once over, I will make short work with you.”

Rejected by both parties—the natural result of her cowardice—the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she skulks in dark places, and prefers the night to the day—a warning to all men that they must not “trim.”

147

It has been shewn that two Nouns or Pronouns when “in Apposition” are both used Subjectively, or else both used Objectively. There are some Verbs whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pronouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition.

These Verbs sometimes express the identity between two persons or things. The Verb “is” is commonly used thus:—

Here “is” expresses the identity between “my brother” and the Subject of “is,” i.e. “the author.”

Hence the name Object could not be given to “my brother.” Indeed, if you alter the sentence by putting yourself in your brother’s place, it becomes—

Since, therefore, you are obliged to use the Subjective form “I” (not “me”), it follows that “brother” in (1) is Subjectively, not Objectively, used.

For a similar reason, the ordinary term “Object” cannot be given to the Noun following the Verb in—

In these sentences the Verb by itself is incomplete. “He was made” is not only not the complete meaning; it is even untrue. The Verb is, not “was made,” but “was made-king.” “To make-king” and “to make-beautiful” are, each, just as much one Verb, as “to be-king” and “to beauti-fy.”

148 Since the words “rascal” and “general” supplement the preceding Verbs, they may be called the Supplement of the Verb; and, since they are here used Subjectively, they may be called the Subjective Supplement of the Verb.^[1]

On the other hand, in—

—since the identity is here between the Object “him” and the “rascal” or “general,” we may call “rascal” and “general” Objective Supplements of the Verb.^[1]

149 Adjectives are sometimes thus used as Supplements:—

Here “thought-foolish” may be regarded as a Compound Verb.

Somewhat different is the Participial use of Adjectives in—

Caution. Distinguish carefully between:—

1. The Complementary Infinitive, which is the Complement of a Noun or Pronoun (see Par. 97).

3. The Supplement, which is the Supplement of a Verb.

150 N.B.—The Intransitive Verbs “is,” “looks,” “seems,” “appears,” and the Transitive Verbs “make,” “create,” “appoint,” “deem,” “esteem,” being often used to express identity, may be called “Verbs of Identity.”

Rule.—Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement; when Transitive, take an Objective Supplement.

151 Instead of saying “To walk is healthy,” “To steal is dishonest,” we sometimes wish to put the Subject, e.g. “to walk,” at the end. But we should not like to say “is healthy to walk;” we want to put in some little word as the Subject of is, as it were to prepare the way for the real Subject that is coming later on. So we say “It is healthy to walk,” i.e. “it is healthy—I mean to walk is healthy.”

This “it” may be called the Preparatory Subject of “is;” for it is like a servant sent on to prepare the way for his master and to secure room for him at an inn. “To walk” is the real Subject of “is.”

152 The Adverb there is used in the same preparatory way, though of course it is not a Subject. For example, if you are beginning a story about a boy, it does not sound well to say “once a little boy was;” so we place “little boy” last, and put in the word “there,” not to mean “in that place,” but simply to make us feel that something is coming:—

When there is thus used, you may say “it prepares the way for the Subject, and is a Preparatory Adverb.”

State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the italicized Nouns in the following Exercise:—

153

Once there was a stag in a forest. Looking one day at the reflection of his antlers in the water, he thought himself the most beautiful creature he had ever seen, till his eyes fell on the long, slim, shadows of his legs. “Why,” cried he, “has not Providence made all my limbs ornaments to me? Why has not Heaven given me the legs of the horse, which, though they do not carry him quite so swiftly as I run, are nevertheless swift and beautiful at the same time? It is certain that then I should^[1] be the king of the forest, and there would^[1] be none to dispute the title with me. But alas! my legs are mere sticks, and make me the scarecrow of the forest. However, complaints being unavailing, I must submit.”

154

Scarcely had he spoken, when there was a sound of the huntsman’s horn. Away flew the stag, through the thick wood; but he was sadly hindered, his long antlers catching in the low branches, and checking his furious leaps. Before he had gone a mile, the hounds were close upon him; but luckily he reached the open plain. Here his fine antlers, the ornaments of which he had been so proud, no longer hindered him; and by the aid of his legs, the ugly sticks that he had been so contemptuously despising, he soon got safe away.

It is a mistake you see, sometimes, to despise what is ugly.

155

State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the other italicized words in the following Exercise:—

156

In a crack near a cupboard, filled with good things, there once lived a young mouse with her mother. One day the little mouse, who had been wandering about by herself—a common custom with her—came running hastily back: her face and tail proclaiming unusual delight. “Dear mother,” cried she, “it seems certain that the people here are very fond of us, for they have built us a house that will give us everything we need. They have made it square, and just of the right size: the floor is wooden, and so are the sides; but there are windows to let in the light, and bars to keep out those monstrous striped animals that you call cats. Besides, just inside the cottage, close to the door, there is a piece of toasted cheese. As soon as I perceived it, the delicious smell attracting me, I was on the point of rushing in to taste it; but I thought it my duty to come and bring you word first.”

157

“My dear daughter,” replied the old mouse, “it is most fortunate that you did not enter that trap (for it was a trap) which you thought a cottage. If you had entered, you would have been taught by your death a lesson that you have now learned very cheaply. When young mice grow old, they find that many things that seemed made for them were made for quite a different purpose—a truth that, I trust, you will never forget.”

“It” as Antecedent.

158 I. “It” is still clearly used for the Antecedent of the Relative Pronoun in questions:—

It is also thus used in the Bible, where we could hardly use “it”:—

Similarly in Shakespeare:—

159 II. We do not now like to put “it” in an emphatic position. The word seems too light to bear, as it were, the weight that would sometimes fall on it, if placed in the usual position of the Antecedent. For example, in answer to (1) above, we do not like to say, though it would be logically correct—

Instead of this, we prefer to take some of the emphasis from “it” by shifting the place of “that.” In this way, “it” becomes almost as unemphatic as the preparatory “it” in Par. 151:—

160 By a similar transposition, instead of saying, “It that says so is you,” we ought to say, strictly speaking—

But this sounds harsh. We feel that what we want to express is “You say so.” Hence “You that says so” seems ungrammatical. Consequently, by a mistake of confusion (confusing (6) with “you say so”), we have fallen into the habit of writing the sentence thus:—

161 But, in parsing (7), the only right method is 1st, to state that “say” is, by confusion, used for “says;” 2nd, that the sentence is transposed from “it that says so is you;” 3rd, that “it” is the Antecedent of “that,” and Subject of “is.”

The same parsing applies to—

162 It would appear also to apply to—

These sentences would appear to be for “It that I laughed at was you,” “It that I received this insult from was you.”

It has been suggested that “it” is here the “Preparatory it,” and “that” a Conjunction, the meaning being “The fact that I received this insult was owing to, or, from you.” But this does not seem to hold good for (9) “The fact that I laughed was at you.”

Of course however “it” is the Preparatory “it,” and “that” is a Conjunction in:

Besides expressing facts, a Verb may express—

163 I. Purpose:^[1]—

164 II. Condition:^[1]—

165 III. The Consequence of the fulfilment of Condition:^[1]—

Every ordinary Verb has a manner, mode, or Mood of expressing Purpose, Condition, and Conditional Consequence.

166

“Would” (apparently of purpose) is used in “We begged, besought, that he would come.” See Par. 173.

The distinction between “might” and “should” appears to be, that “might” (expressing possibility) is a more modest word wherewith to represent one’s object, than “should,” which expresses futurity, and necessity.

In other words, since we do not like to express our hopes so strongly as our fears, we use “might” of what we hope, and “should” of what we fear.

The following is an important division of a Conditional sentence:—

167 In a Conditional sentence, (1) the clause expressing the condition is called the Antecedent (“going-before”); (2) the clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Consequent.^[1]

The forms in the Antecedent differ from the corresponding forms in the Consequent, and three out of five are identical with the Indicative, as will be seen from the following scheme:—

168

169

The Auxiliary Verbs have only the Indicative form of the Subjunctive; they do not use the “shall-form.” For example, we do not say, “If I should can (be able to) come, I should will (wish to) do so,” but “If I could come, I would do so.” Remembering that “could,” “might,” and “would” are the Past Tenses of “can,” “may,” and “will,” and also bearing in mind the meanings of “can,” “will,” &c., viz. “to be able,” “to be willing,” we shall be able to express their Indicative Subjunctive forms in the ordinary Subjunctive forms, as follows:—

170